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Paper short abstract:

Based on the analysis of diplomatic ceremonies and secular shogunal rites, this paper reconsiders the ritual regime of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu. Greater attention is brought to the political rituals of his successors who were able to redefine the Ashikaga rule both domestically and internationally.

Paper long abstract:

This paper observes the transformation of the Ashikaga shoguns in the late fourteenth - early fifteenth centuries by examining secular rites that supported the power of the Muromachi warrior government. The focus is on three shoguns, Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), Yoshimochi (1386-1428), and Yoshinori (1394-1441), who created new ceremonies and customs in order to bring familial hierarchy to the warrior class and to rule over aristocrats as proprietors. Their new political rituals, such as monthly shogunal receptions (sanrei) and ritualised shogunal visits (o-nari), re-branded the shogun as "Muromachi-dono", the ruler of all the elites. At the same time, their ritual regimes are characterised by resurgence of diplomatic exchange with the Ming dynasty of China. Yoshimitsu initiated the contact and fully immersed himself into tributary relations; Yoshimochi vehemently debated such a status, resulting in Yoshinori having to re-establish the relations but on special terms. In all three cases, correspondence with the Ming court and receptions of its envoys meant more than simple diplomatic protocol as even the smallest ceremonial nuances influenced the political status of Japan in the eyes of its rulers.

The most famous and well-researched element of the diplomatic exchange between Muromachi Japan and Ming China is the investiture of Yoshimitsu as the "king of Japan" (Nihon kokuō). Some researchers disregard this title as a means to achieve agreement on the tally trade, whilst others perceive Yoshimitsu borrowing legitimacy from the Chinese emperor in order to supplant the Japanese emperor. Both interpretations are underwhelming as they exclude the political stances of Yoshimitsu's successors who rejected the title and obeisance to Ming political rituals as derogatory and yet had a firmer grip over the Japanese elites. This paper argues that Yoshimitsu was still a premature political figure both domestically and internationally. Internal political rituals of the time were varied but inconsistent leading Yoshimitsu to seek different ways to legitimise his rule and strengthen his position. Later regimes of Yoshimochi and Yoshinori witnessed the standardisation of the ceremonial order around the ruler and that allowed for the communication of the desirable political status of the shogun during the ceremonies with the Ming envoys.

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Paper short abstract:

The paper analyzes the trade activities of Japanese tributary missions in China in the 1540s, arguing that Japanese records help us reveal the connection between Japanese domestic economy and foreign trade, the reasons for changes in the tribute system and the increase of illegal trade in Zhejiang.

Paper long abstract:

Sakugen Shuryo, monk of the Tenryuji temple travelled two times (1539 and 1547) to Ming China as leading member of a tribute mission sent in the name of the "King of Japan" (the Japanese shogun). In fact, however, both missions were organized entirely by Ouchi Yoshitaka, shugo-lord of Western Japan (and not the shogunate), supported by merchants and religious institutions of Kinai region, as well. Gozan temples in Kyoto, for example, provided their help in the diplomatic preparations, Ishiyama Honganji in Osaka, merchants from Sakai and merchant-moneylenders of Kyoto provided financial/commercial support. Some of the supporters sent even representatives on the tribute ships to China with the purpose of doing trade with the Chinese, which was a rare opportunity at that time. Around the mid-16th century, however, sending of tribute missions to China was not without any risks because of the emergence of illegal trade and the increasing number of incidents during official trade. After the arrival of the Portuguese in the 1510s and the Ningbo Incident in 1523, Chinese officials started to discuss the issue of the tribute system. Some pragmatic officials questioned the necessity of the traditional tribute system, while others were against the idea of abolishing it. When Sakugen visited China, tribute system already underwent important changes, but it was still under debate in the court and the provinces. In Zhejiang, where the Japanese tributaries were supposed to disembark, the traditional tribute system was still intact. Aim of this paper is to analyze the trade activities of Sakugen Shuryo and his discussions with the Chinese officials regarding commercial issues, and thus to reconstruct the Japanese experience in the changing commercial environment of Zhejiang. The paper will argue that analyzing records of the Japanese tribute missions helps us reveal how Japanese domestic economy was connected to foreign trade and also gives us hints about the reasons why/how Chinese tribute system changed, and how the scope of smuggling increased. Further, placing this topic in the context of the Age of Discovery would also contribute to a better understanding of the European presence in 16th century East Asia.

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Paper short abstract:

This paper discusses the Tsushima domain’s narrative and historiography on the Imjin War, by analyzing Kihaku Genpo's memoirs on the Imjin war and his compilation of sources about the Imjin war for the lord of Tsushima domain.

Paper long abstract:

This paper discusses the Tsushima domain’s narrative and historiography on the Imjin War, by analyzing Kihaku Genpo's memoirs on the Imjin war and his compilation of sources about the Imjin war for the lord of Tsushima domain. As a pioneer of Hideyoshi’s Joseon invasion, the Tsushima domain plays an important role in the Imjin war. After the Imjin war, the Sō clan continued to control Tsushima and was entrusted with diplomatic negotiations and trade with Joseon Korea during the Edo period, leaving an extensive collection of documents of the Tsushima Sō Family. Takeda (1925) has introduced the newly discovered Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s documents kept in the Tsushima Sō Family, and later Korean History Compilation Committee (1937) engraved and deciphered 24 shuinjo (red-sealed letter) bestowed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi to Sō Yoshitoshi. There are also recent studies of the war chronicle "Ryoukoku Jinshin Jikki" edited by Yamazaki Hisanaga (Kim Shiduck, Nakano Hitoshi) , however, the above-mentioned scholars have neither noticed that the original version was kept in the documents of the Tsushima Sō Family, nor have they discussed other records on the Imjin war held by the Tsushima domain. This paper will focus on Kihaku Genpo’s narrative and record of the Imjin war. Kihaku Genpo was a monk-diplomat from Tsushima domain, who presented his reports in five scrolls to Sō Yoshizane, 3rd lord of the Fuchu Domain in Tsushima, including the well known Taikō Hideyoshi Tyosen seito kihon.