Paper short abstract:

Based on the analysis of diplomatic ceremonies and secular shogunal rites, this paper reconsiders the ritual regime of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu. Greater attention is brought to the political rituals of his successors who were able to redefine the Ashikaga rule both domestically and internationally.

Paper long abstract:

This paper observes the transformation of the Ashikaga shoguns in the late fourteenth - early fifteenth centuries by examining secular rites that supported the power of the Muromachi warrior government. The focus is on three shoguns, Yoshimitsu (1358-1408), Yoshimochi (1386-1428), and Yoshinori (1394-1441), who created new ceremonies and customs in order to bring familial hierarchy to the warrior class and to rule over aristocrats as proprietors. Their new political rituals, such as monthly shogunal receptions (sanrei) and ritualised shogunal visits (o-nari), re-branded the shogun as "Muromachi-dono", the ruler of all the elites. At the same time, their ritual regimes are characterised by resurgence of diplomatic exchange with the Ming dynasty of China. Yoshimitsu initiated the contact and fully immersed himself into tributary relations; Yoshimochi vehemently debated such a status, resulting in Yoshinori having to re-establish the relations but on special terms. In all three cases, correspondence with the Ming court and receptions of its envoys meant more than simple diplomatic protocol as even the smallest ceremonial nuances influenced the political status of Japan in the eyes of its rulers.

The most famous and well-researched element of the diplomatic exchange between Muromachi Japan and Ming China is the investiture of Yoshimitsu as the "king of Japan" (Nihon kokuō). Some researchers disregard this title as a means to achieve agreement on the tally trade, whilst others perceive Yoshimitsu borrowing legitimacy from the Chinese emperor in order to supplant the Japanese emperor. Both interpretations are underwhelming as they exclude the political stances of Yoshimitsu's successors who rejected the title and obeisance to Ming political rituals as derogatory and yet had a firmer grip over the Japanese elites. This paper argues that Yoshimitsu was still a premature political figure both domestically and internationally. Internal political rituals of the time were varied but inconsistent leading Yoshimitsu to seek different ways to legitimise his rule and strengthen his position. Later regimes of Yoshimochi and Yoshinori witnessed the standardisation of the ceremonial order around the ruler and that allowed for the communication of the desirable political status of the shogun during the ceremonies with the Ming envoys.