Paper short abstract:

The paper analyzes the trade activities of Japanese tributary missions in China in the 1540s, arguing that Japanese records help us reveal the connection between Japanese domestic economy and foreign trade, the reasons for changes in the tribute system and the increase of illegal trade in Zhejiang.

Paper long abstract:

Sakugen Shuryo, monk of the Tenryuji temple travelled two times (1539 and 1547) to Ming China as leading member of a tribute mission sent in the name of the "King of Japan" (the Japanese shogun). In fact, however, both missions were organized entirely by Ouchi Yoshitaka, shugo-lord of Western Japan (and not the shogunate), supported by merchants and religious institutions of Kinai region, as well. Gozan temples in Kyoto, for example, provided their help in the diplomatic preparations, Ishiyama Honganji in Osaka, merchants from Sakai and merchant-moneylenders of Kyoto provided financial/commercial support. Some of the supporters sent even representatives on the tribute ships to China with the purpose of doing trade with the Chinese, which was a rare opportunity at that time. Around the mid-16th century, however, sending of tribute missions to China was not without any risks because of the emergence of illegal trade and the increasing number of incidents during official trade. After the arrival of the Portuguese in the 1510s and the Ningbo Incident in 1523, Chinese officials started to discuss the issue of the tribute system. Some pragmatic officials questioned the necessity of the traditional tribute system, while others were against the idea of abolishing it. When Sakugen visited China, tribute system already underwent important changes, but it was still under debate in the court and the provinces. In Zhejiang, where the Japanese tributaries were supposed to disembark, the traditional tribute system was still intact. Aim of this paper is to analyze the trade activities of Sakugen Shuryo and his discussions with the Chinese officials regarding commercial issues, and thus to reconstruct the Japanese experience in the changing commercial environment of Zhejiang. The paper will argue that analyzing records of the Japanese tribute missions helps us reveal how Japanese domestic economy was connected to foreign trade and also gives us hints about the reasons why/how Chinese tribute system changed, and how the scope of smuggling increased. Further, placing this topic in the context of the Age of Discovery would also contribute to a better understanding of the European presence in 16th century East Asia.