Abstract:

The prospects of global politics becoming ever more divisive - carved into antagonistic geopolitical blocs - is no longer a passing concern. Scholars and political experts alike have continuously debated the crisis of the (liberal) international order, a crisis that has only worsened after 2022, in the wake of Russia’s full-blown invasion of Ukraine. The alleged crisis of that order, coupled with the rise of geopolitics, is as much a sign of decaying internationalism as it is of rising imperialism. The essay takes, however, a less polarised view of the ongoing crisis. Without dismissing the growing potential of imperialism at a global scale, we claim that internationalism remains vital from a regional perspective. As major discussions over the rise of imperialism deal mainly with the great powers, we argue that the regions too need to be scrutinised before dismissing the vitality of the international liberal order. To that effect, we argue that Central Asia as a whole, mainly through the silence it has displayed over the war in Ukraine and the independent foreign policies that its states have practiced since the dissolution of the Soviet Union has helped to foster an international setting that has kept imperialism at bay, both within and without the region. By looking at regions beyond great power competition, such as in Central Asia, internationalism cannot yet be dismissed in its entirety.

Abstract:

This study aims to compare the opportunities and limitations of the Belt and Road Initiative and the EU Global Gateway in Central Asia, focusing on their strategic significance, economic impact and environmental considerations.

This study adopts a comparative analysis approach and analyzes secondary data from a range of published academic articles, policy reports and official documents. The study critically examines the investment strategies, geopolitical ambitions and environmental policies associated with each initiative, using case studies from Central Asian countries to illustrate their practical implications.

This study finds that while both initiatives aim to enhance connectivity and economic development in Central Asia, they differ fundamentally in their approaches, governance models, and long-term sustainability implications for the region. Specifically, the study concluded that the Belt and Road Initiative offers substantial opportunities for infrastructure development but raises concerns about debt sustainability, environmental degradation and erosion of sovereignty. Instead, the EU's global portal promotes a more sustainable and transparent approach, emphasizing governance and environmental standards, although its effectiveness depends on substantial investment and political commitment.

The novelty of this study lies in its comprehensive comparison of the Belt and Road Initiative and global gateways, particularly in the context of Central Asia, a region that is often overlooked in global development discussions. It contributes to the academic discussion by highlighting the degree of independence that Central Asian states have maintained in promoting these initiatives amid increasing geopolitical competition.

Areas of practical application of the research findings include informing policy decisions by Central Asian governments, guiding international development agencies in developing engagement strategies, and assisting investors in understanding the geopolitical and economic landscape of the region. The analysis highlights the importance of sustainable development principles and the need for a balanced approach to international investment in Central Asia.

Abstract:

The quarantine measures that were applied almost everywhere in connection with the spread of COVID-19, and then the transition of the confrontation between Russia and Ukraine to a military phase in February 2022 and related events (the imposition of large-scale sanctions against Russia and mobilization activities in Russia) had a serious impact on migration flows in the Eurasian migration system. The paper analyzes statistical data to determine the extent to which the changes were systemic for Kazakhstan and whether they led to a transformation of Kazakhstan's position in the Eurasian migration system. The paper demonstrates that the transformations impacted at least three components of migration processes that are significant for Kazakhstan, as identified in the Concept of Migration Policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2023-2027. These components include the balance of external migration, migration of skilled workers and educational migration, and Kazakhs moving to Kazakhstan. The quarantine measures that were applied almost everywhere in connection with the spread of COVID-19, and then the transition of the confrontation between Russia and Ukraine to a military phase in February 2022 and related events (the imposition of large-scale sanctions against Russia and mobilization activities in Russia) had a serious impact on migration flows in the Eurasian migration system. The paper analyzes statistical data to determine the extent to which the changes were systemic for Kazakhstan and whether they led to a transformation of Kazakhstan's position in the Eurasian migration system. The paper demonstrates that the transformations impacted at least three components of migration processes that are significant for Kazakhstan, as identified in the Concept of Migration Policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2023-2027. These components include the balance of external migration, migration of skilled workers and educational migration, and Kazakhs moving to Kazakhstan. First, there is a serious change in the volume of migration related to change of permanent residence. In 2023, for the first time since 2012, Kazakhstan recorded a positive balance of such migration. At the same time, although Russia remains the most attractive country for migration from Kazakhstan, migration flows in this direction have significantly decreased. Moreover, the parity between the number of immigrants and emigrants was reached in 2023. Secondly, there are contradictory dynamics in the field of migration in connection with brain drain. On the one hand, there is an increase in the number of immigrants with tertiary and specialized secondary education and a surplus of such migration in 2023. On the other hand, from the academic year 2019-2020 we can speak about the decrease in the interest of foreign citizens to study in Kazakhstan. If the first vector can be explained by the inflow of migrants from Russia to Kazakhstan, the second vector requires additional analysis. Third, in 2022 and 2023, an increase in the migration of representatives of at least two ethnic groups - Kazakhs and Russians - is recorded, with the number of Russians entering Kazakhstan for permanent residence reaching the highest level since 2014. However, the paper argues that it is still premature to draw conclusions about the fundamental transformation of Kazakhstan’s place in the Eurasian migration system.