Paper short abstract:

This mixed-methods study (in adolescents from slum communities in Kolkata, India) examined (1) the impact of a multicomponent gender equality program and (2) adolescents’ beliefs regarding the changeability of gender norms in their communities/society. The data, obtained by questionnaires and photovoice, show the effects of the program over time and insight in relevant gender themes in this group.

Paper long abstract:

RESEARCH CONTEXT

Having the ability to exercise material, cultural, social and political control over one’s life and surroundings is one of the core tenets of Sen’s capability approach. Yet, the realization of one’s potential is not only a matter of individual characteristics but also largely defined by the socio-cultural context. That means that social structures, socio-cultural norms and beliefs influence what people can do and be. Yet, it is well known that disparities exist, both between and within countries with gross inequalities along the lines of gender, race, socio-economic status and age.

In India, gender inequality is a major issue (it ranks 135 among a total of 146 countries in the Global Gender Gap Index 2022). Despite improvement, these inequalities have a major impact on people’s capability to live a fulfilling life.

Calcutta Rescue (CR) is an NGO in Kolkata supporting the most vulnerable and disadvantaged in the city. CR’s mission is to fight poverty by offering free healthcare, education and improvement of living standards and empower those who need it most. CR’s gender equality program recognizes the unique window of opportunity to impact gender norms in early adolescence and the importance of boys in achieving gender equality, the program focuses on girls and boys aged 10-18 years. The program encompasses teacher training, a boys-club in which boys collectively discuss challenges with gender issues with a male social worker, individual and group sessions with students, the community and parents about topics related to gender roles, gender norms and gender-based violence.

A mixed-methods study was conducted to (1) examine the effects of the program on adolescents’ attitudes towards gender norms, tolerance of violence against girls, and school absence due to involvement in household chores (quantitative part); (2) explore adolescents’ beliefs regarding the changeability of gender norms in their communities and society (qualitative part).

METHODOLOGY

Quantitative part

A single-group pretest-posttest design was used to measure the impact of the program. Girls and boys (10-18 years) enrolled in CR’s adolescent gender equality program (n = 195; 57.1% female) completed measures of attitudes towards gender norms, attitudes towards condoning violence against girls (in boys only), and school absence due to involvement in household chores at baseline (before the start of the program) and 16 months thereafter.

Qualitative part

Photovoice was used to get a better understanding of adolescents’ beliefs regarding the changeability of gender norms in their communities and society. Photovoice is an innovative participatory action-oriented research method that puts cameras into the hands of participants to help them document, critically reflect upon and communicate their issues of concern. The use of photography alongside narratives provides a powerful means for minority groups to communicate their lived experiences. The method can lead to empowerment when the participants realize that their pictures and related discussions can be used as visual evidence for policymakers and foster social change.

Two years after the start of CR’s gender equality program, 16 adolescents (12 girls, 4 boys; age 16-18 years) participated in a weeklong photovoice workshop. During the workshop a photovoice trainer guided the adolescents through a set of pre-defined steps: (1) basic training in visual literacy, photography, and ethics, (2) establishment of the research question, (3) picture taking, (4) picture selection, (5) picture contextualization, (6) picture categorization, and (7) ways to turn insights into action. Steps 4-6 were group discussions, where the participants reviewed their photographs, codified the data, and identified the themes that emerged from the data.

RESULTS

Quantitative part

The results of paired t-tests indicated a significant improvement in all indices of gender equality i.e., more gender equitable attitudes towards gender norms (t194 = 7.04, p = <.001, d = .50), less condoning of violence against girls (t78 = -3.19, p = .001, d = -36), and lower rates of school absence due to involvement in household chores over time (t188 = -2.24, p = .013, d = -16). Regarding sex differences: both girls and boys became more gender equitable over time but girls had more gender equitable attitudes towards gender norms than boys F (1, 193) = 56.29, p <.001. The results further showed that boys with a more positive attitude toward gender norms were less tolerant of violence against girls (baseline: r =.22, p =.047; at follow-up r =.55, p <.001).

Qualitative part

The research question of this study was: “What role belonging to your gender do you think will always stay the same”. Through critical dialogue and group reflection, eight themes were identified: responsibility, lack of confidence, tradition, vulnerability, maternity and human care, bodily strength, lack of trust from society, convenience and habit. Students expressed their wish to speak out about the importance of gender equality, starting with their family and their communities. Some students mentioned that they want to write to the secretary of state emphasizing the value of gender education lessons at school. They also voiced their intention to put the learned lessons about gender equality into practice and behave accordingly. Other effects of the photovoice project included an increase in students’ self-confidence and self-expression over time.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results of this study showed a significant improvement over time in different aspects of gender equality in adolescents from very disadvantaged neighborhoods. The positive results obtained during a relatively short time suggests that CR’s multi-component gender equality program, which adopts a systems thinking approach tackling gender issues at different social levels, provides a promising avenue to address gender issues in this group. Longer exposure to the program and extended follow-up is needed to determine the effectiveness of the program in the long term. The results of the photovoice project, which provide information about the remaining challenges in receiving gender equality in this group, will be used to further optimize the program by incorporating the themes as prompts for discussion with parents and community members. The students themselves will be encouraged to put their insights into action. This may involve strategies to support the empowerment of these marginalized youth and the development of capabilities required for the realization of their full potential.

Paper short abstract:

Intersectionalised social inequalities can be understood as a lack of capabilities which influence the participation of children in sports. By using a model of good-practice (which shows transformative characteristics) a qualitative study analyzed the children's perspective regarding capability building. The findings show that transformative staging on the micro level can create capabilities.

Paper long abstract:

Background: Intersectionalised social inequalities describe social conditions that can be understood as a lack of capabilities (Sen, 2009). These also influence children’s sports. Children who are affected by poverty, are attributed a so-called migration background, are female, and/or grow up in deprived residential environments are underrepresented in extracurricular sports in Germany (e.g., Mutz, 2020). A lack of sports-related capabilities can be the reason for an insufficient fit between children and sports. While these conditions cannot be directly changed, transformative sports stagings are becoming relevant to social justice from a (sports-) educational perspective. Social sports projects for children in precarious situations come into focus since their staging requires only minor conversion factors and, thus, generates capabilities.

Objective: The goal of this paper is to explore key elements of sports settings for aimed at addressing children in precarious situations by using a model of good-practice called Open Sunday (as commodity). This project requires no specific motoric abilities, knowledge, or gender, it is free of charge, with no registration, has got a polysportive approach, and it is roofed and accessible on foot (Edelhoff, 2023). The study aims to reconstruct the capabilities (respectively the conversion factors) from the perspective of the participants (6 – 10 years old).

Method: By using a qualitative method approach, 25 guided interviews were conducted with children who participate in the project Open Sunday. (Mage = 8.2 years, SDage = 1.01 years). The average interview length was about 29 minutes. The data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis to reconstruct shared and multi-faceted meaning across the dataset regarding key elements of staging that explain the participation (Braun & Clarke, 2022).

Result: Five themes were developed in the data analysis, which refer to the key elements as follows: (1) In contrast to other settings (e.g., schools, sports clubs), children have the freedom to play as they like. (2) Every child is at least able to do some of the given sports content, so that there is no a priori exclusion. (3) Due to the broad social conditions, the participants can choose various relationships with other children (old/new friends, family members) while playing, which fits to their diversity in social needs. (4) The constantly changing sports content leads to a continuously attractive leisure time possibility for children. (5) In order to guarantee free, safe, and joyful playing, it is necessary that adults make slight regulations and structural arrangements (content, methods). These themes represent different conversion factors that generate the capability to participate in this project, which then strengthens e.g., sports-related competences that can be used in other settings.

Conclusion: This study enlarges the research on key elements for the staging of sports for children in precarious situations at the micro level by providing the perspective of children. The analysis sheds light on missing elements of sports settings and contributes to unveiling underlying mechanisms of social exclusion in children’s sports.

References

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. SAGE.

Edelhoff, D. (2023). Soziale Gerechtigkeit im Kindersport durch Capabilities am Beispiel des sozialen Sportprojekts Open Sunday. Bewegung & Sport: Fachzeitschrift für den Unterricht in Schulen, Kindergärten und Vereinen, 77(2), 15–19.

Mutz, M. (2020). Sport- und Bewegungsaktivitäten von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland: Ein Update des Forschungsstandes. In C. Breuer, C. Joisten & W. Schmidt (Hrsg.), Vierter Deutscher Kinder- und Jugendsportbericht (S. 39-50). Hofmann.

Sen, A. (2009). The idea of justice. Allen Lane & Harvard University Press.

Paper short abstract:

This paper on childhood poverty in India, using NFHS-4 and NFHS-5, extends MPI to assess gendered and intrahousehold dimensions. Findings show persistent poverty (21%) and a rise in "pioneer children" in marginalized households, suggesting targeted interventions for equitable outcomes.

Paper long abstract:

Childhood poverty poses significant challenges, hindering access to basic rights and perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage across generations. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) articulates provisions aimed at ensuring children's holistic development, non-discrimination, freedom of expression, protection from harm, and access to education. However, child poverty and intrahousehold inequality persist, particularly in countries like India.

This paper introduces a novel methodology for assessing gendered and intrahousehold dimensions of child poverty in India, utilizing data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4 and NFHS-5). Building upon the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) framework proposed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), the study extends the analysis to focus specifically on children within households. This approach enables a nuanced understanding of child poverty, considering gender disparities and intrahousehold dynamics. The primary objective of this study is to understand changes in poverty among children aged 0-17 years in India between 2015-16 and 2019-21, with a focus on gender differentials. Additionally, the study seeks to explore intrahousehold inequalities by examining the prevalence of coexisting deprived and non-deprived children within households. Moreover, the study aims to investigate the prevalence of "pioneer children" those aged 10-17 years who have completed six years of schooling while no adult in the household has achieved the same and try to capture intergenerational educational attainment disparities within households and assess their implications for child well-being.

The methodology utilizes indicators from NFHS-4 and NFHS-5, encompassing dimensions such as education, healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and housing. Individual-level data for children are examined alongside household-level information to assess deprivation status. Demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and the number of children in the household are considered to contextualize poverty within the household setting.

Key findings reveal that while there has been a slight reduction in multidimensional poverty among under-five children from 35% in 2015-16 to 31% in 2019-21, overall MPI among 0-17 years children remains at 21% in India.

Among children under the age of five, only six percent faced nutrition deficiency as a standalone issue. However, approximately 27 percent of nutrition-deficient children also experienced deprivation in at least one additional dimension, indicating overlapping vulnerabilities. Alarmingly, more than one-third of nutrition-deficient children suffered from deprivation in two other dimensions. Furthermore, a significant portion, 32 percent, of nutrition-deprived children faced overlapping deprivation in three to seven dimensions, underscoring the multifaceted nature of their deprivation. Similarly, concerning health, only 12 percent of children experienced health deprivation as a standalone issue. However, 35 percent of health-deprived children also experienced deprivation in at least one more dimension. Additionally, another 36 percent of children suffered from deprivation in two other dimensions, followed by 17 percent experiencing deprivation in three to seven dimensions, highlighting the complexity and severity of health-related deprivation among children. In the adolescent age group, the scenario regarding education deprivation is notable. Merely 17 percent of adolescents faced education deprivation as a standalone problem. However, one-fourth of education-deprived adolescents also experienced deprivation in at least one more dimension alongside the education dimension. Furthermore, 34 percent of education-deprived adolescents suffered from deprivation in two other dimensions, followed by 24 percent experiencing deprivation in three to seven dimensions, emphasizing the interconnectedness of education deprivation with other dimensions of poverty.

Further, the proportion of school-age children residing in MPI poor households where at least one child does not attend school while another does has increased from 8.1% to 12%. Conversely, the percentage of children living in households where one child is malnourished while another is not has slightly decreased from 21.8% to 20.2%. Furthermore, the study identifies a rise in the percentage of "pioneer children" – those aged 10-17 years who have completed six years of schooling while no adult in the household has achieved the same. These pioneer children are more prevalent in scheduled caste households, followed by Other Backward Classes (OBC) and scheduled tribe households. Additionally, 6.5% of pioneer children living in MPI poor households coexist with other children who have not completed six years of schooling and are out of school, indicating intersecting deprivations within households.

Childhood poverty and intrahousehold inequality persist in India, posing significant challenges to the well-being and development of children. Despite policy commitments and economic growth, the multidimensional nature of poverty and the complexities of intrahousehold dynamics continue to hinder progress towards achieving equitable outcomes for all children.

The findings of this study underscore the need for targeted interventions to address both the broader issue of child poverty and the specific challenges posed by intrahousehold inequalities. While there has been a slight reduction in multidimensional poverty among under-five children, overall poverty remains prevalent among children aged 0-17 years, with 21% still experiencing deprivation in multiple dimensions. Moreover, the prevalence of overlapping deprivations, particularly in areas such as nutrition and health, highlights the intersecting vulnerabilities faced by many children within households.

In addressing intrahousehold inequalities, policymakers must recognize the interconnectedness of various dimensions of poverty and the differential experiences of children within households. Efforts should focus on promoting gender equality and addressing disparities based on factors such as age, caste, and socio-economic status. Strategies to enhance access to education, healthcare, nutrition, and other essential services should be designed with a keen understanding of intrahousehold dynamics to ensure that interventions reach those most in need. Furthermore, the identification of "pioneer children" – those who have achieved significant educational milestones despite household-level barriers – highlights the potential for targeted interventions to break the cycle of intergenerational poverty. Supporting the educational aspirations of pioneer children and addressing the underlying factors that contribute to educational disparities within households can have far-reaching implications for improving overall child well-being and fostering social mobility.

Strengthening social protection mechanisms and promoting inclusive growth strategies are essential components of a comprehensive approach to addressing intrahousehold inequality. By investing in measures that empower children, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds, to voice their needs and participate in decision-making processes, policymakers can foster more equitable outcomes and create a pathway towards a more inclusive society.

Paper short abstract:

We propose a key measure of multidimensional child deprivation using the Multiple Overlapping Deprivation Analysis (MODA) approach to complement the monetary child poverty measure. Based on the collective decisions of line ministries in determining the dimensions and using the national data in 2022 we found that 40% of children aged 0-17 years old in Indonesia are multidimensionally deprived.

Paper long abstract:

Research Context

The Government of Indonesia (GoI) is interested in understanding more about child welfare as a manifestation of its commitment to enhancing programs and policies concerning children, aiming to achieve the vision of a Golden Indonesia by 2045. In partnership with UNICEF and BPS, and under the auspices of BAPPENAS, SMERU is analyzing child welfare from both monetary and non-monetary perspectives. This analysis will provide a significant contribution, especially in efforts to reduce poverty and deprivation among children.

Methodology

Regarding the monetary perspective, the analysis has primarily focused on children living below the national poverty line. For the non-monetary perspective, the Multiple Overlapping Deprivation Analysis (MODA) approach has been employed to assess the level of child deprivation from a multidimensional standpoint. The agreed dimensions have been carefully conducted through extensive consultation and validation with various relevant line ministries, which are mandated with fulfilling and actively promoting child rights. This study ensures a robust and evidence-based approach to developing MODA tailored to Indonesia's context. This step is crucial as it allows for the development of an Indonesia-specific MODA, serving as a guiding reference for all related ministries to enhance the welfare of children throughout the country.

The multidimensional deprivation analysis employs a quantitative approach to delineate child deprivation across each of the agreed-upon seven dimensions and in the calculation of multidimensional indices. Additionally, a qualitative approach was utilized to capture children's perspectives regarding the dimensions of deprivation.

Benefiting from a wide variety of socio-economic data from the 2022 National Socio-Economic Survey (SUSENAS), an overlapping analysis between monetary child poverty and child rights deprivation has been conducted to enhance the findings. This approach will allow for a deeper understanding of the intersectionality between economic hardship and the denial of fundamental rights among children, providing valuable insights for policy formulation and intervention strategies.

Analysis & Conclusion

The study reveals that approximately 40% of all Indonesian children experience multidimensional deprivation in at least two dimensions. Across various age groups, health and access to facilities emerge as the most pressing areas of deprivation. Significantly, disparities between urban and rural contexts are noticeable within each dimension.

Furthermore, the study highlights that children living below the national poverty line exhibit the highest prevalence of multidimensional child deprivation, approximately 73%. However, we also found that some nonpoor children are experiencing deprivation in multiple dimensions. Therefore, it's crucial to acknowledge that even non-poor children may encounter deprivation across multiple dimensions.

This study argues that the MODA approach, which focuses on individual-based, child rights, and age-sensitive methodology, serves as a valuable tool for policymakers in Indonesia to tackle child poverty and deprivation. By enabling the identification and analysis of multidimensional child deprivation characteristics, as well as pinpointing the most critical areas of deprivation within the country's distinct social and cultural context, MODA offers an effective framework. Particularly noteworthy is MODA's alignment with Indonesia's approach to lifelong social protection, emphasizing the importance of addressing the needs of children comprehensively and holistically.