Paper short abstract:

This paper on childhood poverty in India, using NFHS-4 and NFHS-5, extends MPI to assess gendered and intrahousehold dimensions. Findings show persistent poverty (21%) and a rise in "pioneer children" in marginalized households, suggesting targeted interventions for equitable outcomes.

Paper long abstract:

Childhood poverty poses significant challenges, hindering access to basic rights and perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage across generations. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) articulates provisions aimed at ensuring children's holistic development, non-discrimination, freedom of expression, protection from harm, and access to education. However, child poverty and intrahousehold inequality persist, particularly in countries like India.

This paper introduces a novel methodology for assessing gendered and intrahousehold dimensions of child poverty in India, utilizing data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4 and NFHS-5). Building upon the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) framework proposed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), the study extends the analysis to focus specifically on children within households. This approach enables a nuanced understanding of child poverty, considering gender disparities and intrahousehold dynamics. The primary objective of this study is to understand changes in poverty among children aged 0-17 years in India between 2015-16 and 2019-21, with a focus on gender differentials. Additionally, the study seeks to explore intrahousehold inequalities by examining the prevalence of coexisting deprived and non-deprived children within households. Moreover, the study aims to investigate the prevalence of "pioneer children" those aged 10-17 years who have completed six years of schooling while no adult in the household has achieved the same and try to capture intergenerational educational attainment disparities within households and assess their implications for child well-being.

The methodology utilizes indicators from NFHS-4 and NFHS-5, encompassing dimensions such as education, healthcare, nutrition, sanitation, and housing. Individual-level data for children are examined alongside household-level information to assess deprivation status. Demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and the number of children in the household are considered to contextualize poverty within the household setting.

Key findings reveal that while there has been a slight reduction in multidimensional poverty among under-five children from 35% in 2015-16 to 31% in 2019-21, overall MPI among 0-17 years children remains at 21% in India.

Among children under the age of five, only six percent faced nutrition deficiency as a standalone issue. However, approximately 27 percent of nutrition-deficient children also experienced deprivation in at least one additional dimension, indicating overlapping vulnerabilities. Alarmingly, more than one-third of nutrition-deficient children suffered from deprivation in two other dimensions. Furthermore, a significant portion, 32 percent, of nutrition-deprived children faced overlapping deprivation in three to seven dimensions, underscoring the multifaceted nature of their deprivation. Similarly, concerning health, only 12 percent of children experienced health deprivation as a standalone issue. However, 35 percent of health-deprived children also experienced deprivation in at least one more dimension. Additionally, another 36 percent of children suffered from deprivation in two other dimensions, followed by 17 percent experiencing deprivation in three to seven dimensions, highlighting the complexity and severity of health-related deprivation among children. In the adolescent age group, the scenario regarding education deprivation is notable. Merely 17 percent of adolescents faced education deprivation as a standalone problem. However, one-fourth of education-deprived adolescents also experienced deprivation in at least one more dimension alongside the education dimension. Furthermore, 34 percent of education-deprived adolescents suffered from deprivation in two other dimensions, followed by 24 percent experiencing deprivation in three to seven dimensions, emphasizing the interconnectedness of education deprivation with other dimensions of poverty.

Further, the proportion of school-age children residing in MPI poor households where at least one child does not attend school while another does has increased from 8.1% to 12%. Conversely, the percentage of children living in households where one child is malnourished while another is not has slightly decreased from 21.8% to 20.2%. Furthermore, the study identifies a rise in the percentage of "pioneer children" – those aged 10-17 years who have completed six years of schooling while no adult in the household has achieved the same. These pioneer children are more prevalent in scheduled caste households, followed by Other Backward Classes (OBC) and scheduled tribe households. Additionally, 6.5% of pioneer children living in MPI poor households coexist with other children who have not completed six years of schooling and are out of school, indicating intersecting deprivations within households.

Childhood poverty and intrahousehold inequality persist in India, posing significant challenges to the well-being and development of children. Despite policy commitments and economic growth, the multidimensional nature of poverty and the complexities of intrahousehold dynamics continue to hinder progress towards achieving equitable outcomes for all children.

The findings of this study underscore the need for targeted interventions to address both the broader issue of child poverty and the specific challenges posed by intrahousehold inequalities. While there has been a slight reduction in multidimensional poverty among under-five children, overall poverty remains prevalent among children aged 0-17 years, with 21% still experiencing deprivation in multiple dimensions. Moreover, the prevalence of overlapping deprivations, particularly in areas such as nutrition and health, highlights the intersecting vulnerabilities faced by many children within households.

In addressing intrahousehold inequalities, policymakers must recognize the interconnectedness of various dimensions of poverty and the differential experiences of children within households. Efforts should focus on promoting gender equality and addressing disparities based on factors such as age, caste, and socio-economic status. Strategies to enhance access to education, healthcare, nutrition, and other essential services should be designed with a keen understanding of intrahousehold dynamics to ensure that interventions reach those most in need. Furthermore, the identification of "pioneer children" – those who have achieved significant educational milestones despite household-level barriers – highlights the potential for targeted interventions to break the cycle of intergenerational poverty. Supporting the educational aspirations of pioneer children and addressing the underlying factors that contribute to educational disparities within households can have far-reaching implications for improving overall child well-being and fostering social mobility.

Strengthening social protection mechanisms and promoting inclusive growth strategies are essential components of a comprehensive approach to addressing intrahousehold inequality. By investing in measures that empower children, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds, to voice their needs and participate in decision-making processes, policymakers can foster more equitable outcomes and create a pathway towards a more inclusive society.