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Paper short abstract:

This paper assesses the merits and risks of measuring multidimensional poverty at the community-level. I first develop a framework to use 'community' as a unit of identification while recognizing horizontal inequalities and retaining ethical individualism. I then empirically apply this approach to the Appalachian context. I conclude by identifying this framework's possible uses and limitations.

Paper long abstract:

What are the possibilities and pitfalls of measuring multidimensional poverty at scales beyond the household? Despite the promises of the so-called ‘data revolution,’ household-level surveys remain infrequent, unrepresentative, and unreliable in many parts of the world. While artificial intelligence is steadily improving to fill in some of these gaps, populations that are under-researched or actively experiencing crises urgently require recognition. At the same time, the measurement of certain capabilities that do not neatly align to individual- or household-level deprivations—such as those related to environment or armed conflict—have recently attracted significant attention, yet it remains unclear how to integrate these complex capabilities into current measurement frameworks.

This paper explores the possibility of addressing these concerns by creating poverty measures at the community-level, providing both an analytical framework for doing so as well as an empirical example of how to apply such an approach. I first review past efforts to analyze and measure the capabilities of groups, a perspective that implies lighter data demands but threatens to overlook horizontal inequalities and to stray from ethical individualism. Drawing inspiration from how past poverty measures have translated deprivations between the household- and individual-levels, I develop a conceptual roadmap for how a poverty measure may be adapted to the community-level while retaining its focus on human capability, thereby placing the ‘community’ as its unit of identification but preserving the ‘individual’ as the unit of analysis. For this methodology to remain embedded in the human development tradition, I contend that a community-level index must be further supplemented with a qualitative, ethnographic account about how the measured deprivations interface with all members of a community. I lastly lay out a series of crucial caveats of this deeply imperfect approach and consider a few theoretical applications of it, such as generating exploratory data in the pursuit of narrative capability or allocating relief in areas experiencing crisis.

In the second section of this paper, I demonstrate the merits of the above approach by developing and applying a community-level measure in reference to central Appalachia. I begin by introducing the Alkire-Foster method—a ‘counting’ approach to multidimensional poverty measurement that facilitates both identification and aggregation—and Letcher County—the site of my research that lies in the Appalachian region of the southern United States and exhibits high poverty rates due to its extractive past. I then introduce and map the results of my community-level measure, whose indicators I developed based on participatory fieldwork in the county. Crucially, I then provide a qualitative account of how each of the measured dimensions—‘Infrastructure,’ ‘Natural disaster vulnerability,’ ‘Proximity to services,’ and ‘Common spaces’—interface with every member of a community regardless of his or her household characteristics. Though never able to perfectly capture human capability or parse out horizontal inequalities, this approach may be particularly gainful in the Appalachian context where household-level data are scarce and natural disaster relief funds are traditionally distributed through community organizations.

I conclude this paper by considering the relative merits of this approach. Pointing to the Appalachian example, I particularly highlight how a community-level measure could be used in moments of crisis or to approximate capabilities that don’t neatly map onto an atomized, household-level view of poverty. Nonetheless, I caution that this approach demands that researchers provide a qualitative account of how community-level deprivations interface with residents’ lived experiences of poverty, lest it risk misallocating development or relief funds. Poverty measures at scales beyond the household, I suggest, cannot serve as perfect substitutes for high-quality household surveys, but they may represent one gainful tool as long as they remain analytically embedded into individuals’ lived experiences of poverty.

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Paper short abstract:

This paper has two aims. 1) Showing how the gold standard of impact evaluation for development projects, i.e., randomized controlled trials, ignores important aspects. 2) Taking inspiration from the capability approach to elaborate a richer theoretical framework aimed at informing alternative methods to assess development interventions. Health projects in Kenya are taken as a case study.

Paper long abstract:

Keywords: development projects, impact evaluation, randomized controlled trials, human development & capability approach, health

Research Context

Disadvantaged and fragile countries are historically threatened by a series of multifaceted and interlinked crises which create stress on individuals’ and communities’ capabilities, e.g., extreme poverty, humanitarian challenges, sharp inequalities, pandemics, violent conflicts, and climate change. Among these crises, one that is often forgotten is a measurement crisis concerning the assessment of development projects. Project assessment is in fact crucial for understanding the impact of actions and commitments taken for addressing these kinds of emergencies, deciding how and where to allocate the available resources, and designing future interventions. However, the methodology that currently represents the ‘gold standard’ in development economics, i.e., randomized controlled trials (RCTs), is difficult to apply in some important circumstances: a) when development programs are broad in scope, b) when they have been already implemented and thus the research is mostly retrospective, c) when their effects unfold in a medium/long-term horizon and are not limited to the short-term, d) when their implementation in a certain domain is likely to produce cross-sectorial and cross-thematic spill-overs in other domains. Since RCTs are characterized by the necessity to create a manageable experimental setting to isolate a few measurable variables, it can be tricky for them to face these challenges and achieve external validity (Achen, 2022). Moreover, other elements that bring their reliability into question are their feigning ignorance about the content of experience, common knowledge, and best practices (Pritchett, 2020) and their being guided by a rule-utilitarian inspiration indifferent to distributive concerns and detached from the adaptive preferences issue (Henderson, 2022). This paper aims to propose the capability approach as a richer informational basis for assessing development projects to address these limitations, capture important aspects often ignored by traditional evaluation instruments, and consequently orient funding allocation and project design more effectively.

Methodology

The capability approach is a conceptual framework that focuses on the evaluation of human development in terms of the genuine opportunities people have to achieve doings and beings they have reason to value in several dimensions of their lives. Hence, some scholars have argued that its constitutive multidimensional and complex character, which allows researchers to properly weigh the role of both personal and social conversion factors as well as of individual agency, and its vagueness, which transforms the evaluation of achievements from a binary issue into a matter of degree, make the capability approach particularly suitable for the assessment of contested subjects like development projects (Garcés-Velástegui, 2022). Accordingly, this approach offers several advantages for the scope of this paper: a) it provides a unifying lens through which to assess different case studies and compare projects’ real effectiveness while highlighting their specificities; b) it enables to make more detailed analyses and give priority to the worst-off, by placing individuals and communities into their respective contexts; c) it encompasses not just direct, short-term, tangible benefits, but also more long-term, indirect, intangible ones; d) it focus on the process through which outcomes are achieved rather that only on outcomes themselves.

Therefore, our paper takes inspiration from the capability approach to elaborate a theoretical framework aimed at guiding the development of alternative empirical methodologies to assess development projects by focusing on six dimensions:

1) the ownership of development projects and the partnerships that can guarantee their success;

2) the participation and level of engagement of local actors, either formal or informal, as well as the governance mechanisms implemented;

3) to what extent individual and community agency and empowerment have been activated by the projects;

4) what have been the tangible and intangible impacts generated in the short, medium, and long run;

5) what have been, if any, the cross-sectorial and cross-thematic spillover effects produced;

6) the environmental, social, and economic sustainability of the projects.

Moreover, the paper applies this framework to a specific case study, namely, the assessment of a series of development interventions that have been run in Kenya by AICS (the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation) concerning the important issues of maternal and child health and tuberculosis infection. These are among the main challenges faced by the Kenyan healthcare sector to guarantee sustainable human development to the local population and meet the targets of the 3rd SDG (“Good health and well-being”). Each project is analyzed through a mixed methodology informed by the research framework, combining retrospective quantitative surveys and qualitative in-depth interviews conducted with a purposive-selected sample of the main projects’ beneficiaries.

Analysis & Conclusion

The analysis of the projects that have been considered within the paper points to three important lessons:

1. The relevance of the health dimension for human development, both at the individual and community levels.

2. The importance of applying a multidimensional framework for effectively assessing (and designing) development projects capable of capturing the dimensions of participation and ownership, evaluating medium/long-term effects and intangible impacts in addition to short-term tangible ones, combining both individual agency and context analysis.

3. How applying the capability approach offers the opportunity to develop not a deterministic method but a holistic way of thinking that can be adapted to different cases and contexts and operationalised through different methodologies in compliance with the initial objectives of each development project.

Bibliography

Achen, C. H. 2020. RCTs versus observational research. In J. Widner, M. Woolcock & D. Ortega Nieto (eds.), The Case for Case Studies: Methods and Applications in International Development: 52–60. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Garcés-Velástegui, P. 2022. Using the capability approach and fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis in development policy evaluation. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 24(2): 179–197.

Henderson, H. 2022. The moral foundations of impact evaluation. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 23(3): 425–454.

Pritchett, L. 2020. Why “feigned ignorance” is not good economics (or science generally). Lant Pritchett Personal Website, November 6. https://lantpritchett.org/why-feigned-ignorance-is-not-good-economics-or-science-generally/

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Paper short abstract:

Generalized and particularized trust impact human development, bonding and bridging social capital and crises. To overcome CA research gaps regarding trust, we use a rich CA-related database to empirically estimate drivers and interdependence of particularized and generalized trust for South Indian villages and discuss related effects on social capital, human development, capabilities, and agency.

Paper long abstract:

In the last years, the great importance of interpersonal trust, comprising of generalized and particularized trust, for societies, economies, political systems and human development has been emphasized repeatedly (Algan 2019). Further, generalized and particularized trust are foundations of bridging and bonding social capital (Zheng, Wang, Zhang 2023).

Bonding social capital is shaped by particularized trust inside small networks who know each other personally, e.g. families or castes. Bonding social capital can tie ingroup members together and create ingroup loyalty, but also cause outgroup antagonism. Bridging social capital builds on generalized trust of most people, including strangers. Bridging social capital is essential for social cohesion and cooperation beyond specific groups which are prerequisites for overcoming crises, fostering capabilities, collective agency, human development and economic growth (Algan 2019).

The majority of research on interpersonal trust has focused on OECD countries; less studies analyze developing countries. Methodologically, some non-official surveys have very small sample sizes (e.g. ca. 1,000 per country); often studies take insufficient account of regional differences (Algan 2019, 392-396).

From a CA perspective, Amartya Sen (1999: 263) emphasizes the importance of trust as a prerequisite for any exchange economy. According to Sen (1999: 266-267), trust is particularly decisive in developing countries, where a high proportion of informal transactions and weak law enforcement prevail. At an individual micro level, trust is essential for any capability and agency that humans cannot achieve in complete social isolation.

Given the great importance of interpersonal trust for social, economic and political issues from a CA perspective, it is surprising to find hardly any CA research on interpersonal trust. Exceptions include research on "relational capabilities" by Giraud et al. (2013). However, they do not analyze specific determinants and effects of trust in a capability framework. Recently, drivers of generalized trust for capabilities and agency have been investigated by Strotmann and Volkert (2023). They find that generalized trust correlates with various dimensions of human well-being and agency. However, that study does not consider particularized trust as a major part of interpersonal trust and bonding social capital.

To close these mentioned research gaps, the aims of the paper are:

1. To empirically analyze potential CA-related drivers of particularized trust in the regional context of rural India and to compare the findings with the potential drivers of generalized trust. The analyses are based on a large representative regional CA database for human development of individual villagers, households, and communities.

2. To empirically assess the interplay of particularized and generalized trust, e.g. how persons with a certain degree of particularized trust have or have not developed generalized trust (Zheng, Wang, Zhang 2023) and in which respects these persons might differ from each other.

3. To discuss the consequences of these empirical findings for trust and social capital from a CA perspective.

To achieve these goals, we sketch essential conceptual foundations of interpersonal trust and social capital and introduce the capability approach as a theoretical framework for subsequent analyses. We further provide a brief overview of existing empirical evidence on drivers of generalized and particularized trust. Beyond OECD results, we focus on developing countries like India (e.g. Hilger and Nordmann 2020; Sengupta and Sarkar 2012).

For the empirical assessment of potential drivers of particularized trust (Algan 2019: 386), we refer to the answers of the villagers to questions on the extent of trust respondents have in their family members, in members of their caste in their village, and in members of other castes in the village (measured on a 4-digit scale). For generalized trust we refer to the question: “Generally speaking: would you say that most people can be trusted or that you need to be very careful in dealing with people?” Thereby, villagers can either answer "Most people can be trusted" or "Need to be very careful".

In our empirical analyses we will firstly analyze CA-related potential drivers of the degree of particularized interpersonal trust. For this purpose, multivariate discrete choice models will be estimated and the findings compared with corresponding outcomes for potential determinants of generalized interpersonal trust. Additionally, we will examine whether or not a higher degree of particularized trust correlates with a higher degree of generalized trust. Moreover, we will use multinomial logit estimation to analyze differences in the characteristics of groups of villagers who differ in their respective degrees of particularized and generalized trust.

Building on these empirical findings on drivers of generalized and particularized trust, we elaborate their implications for human capabilities and agency from a CA perspective, e. g. in times of crises. Finally, we discuss the potentials of research on interpersonal trust for further developing the CA, analyze limitations of our study and identify further research need.

Literature

Algan, Y. 2019. Trust and Social Capital, in: J. Stiglitz, J.-P. Fitoussi, and M. Durand (ed.). For good measure. An agenda for moving beyond GDP, OECD, New York: The New Press

Giraud, G. ; Renouard, C. ; L’Huillier, H. ; de La Martinière, R. ; Sutter, C. 2013. Relational Capability. A Multidimensional Approach, Research Center, ESSEC Working Paper 1306, Paris.

Hilger, A.; Nordmann, C. J. 2020. The determinants of trust. Evidence from rural South India, IZA discussion paper No. 13150, April, IZA – Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn.

Sen, A. 1999. Development as Freedom. New York: Knopf.

Sengupta, J.; Sarkar, D. 2012: Caste and religious diversity on formation of social capital. A field study in India and measurement issues, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 31(2), 158-175.

Strotmann, H.; Volkert, J. 2023. Interpersonal trust from a Capability Approach perspective: A theoretical and empirical analysis, paper presented at the HDCA Conference 2023, September 11-13, Sofia, Bulgaria, forthcoming.

Zheng, J.; Wang, T. Y.; Zhang, T. 2023. The extension of particularized to generalized trust: the moderating role of long-term versus short-term orientation, Social Indicators Research 166: 269-298.

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Paper short abstract:

Unemployment, particularly amongst women and youth, has been a serious challenge for Namibia. With a Gini coefficient of 0.57, Namibia is estimated to be among the highest income inequality countries. In this paper, we explore the multi-dimensional nature of poverty focusing on select dimensions of education, living standards, health & sanitation, nutrition, employment, and financial inclusion.

Paper long abstract:

About 18% of Namibians were living below the national poverty line of N$520.8 in 2015/16 (NSA 2016). Unemployment, particularly amongst women and the youth, has been a serious challenge for the country. The 2016 Labour Force Survey estimated the country’s unemployment rate at 34%. With a Gini coefficient of 0.57, Namibia is estimated to be among the highest income inequality countries. Despite large-scale social sector expenditure, usage of cash transfers needs to be attained. In this paper, we explore the multi-dimensional nature of poverty focusing on select dimensions of education, living standards, health & sanitation, nutrition, employment, and financial inclusion. The Alkire-Foster (AF) methodology is widely used for measuring multidimensional poverty (Alkire et al., 2015). Based on the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke measures it involves counting the different types of deprivation that individuals at the same time witness and then used to construct a Multidimensional Wealth, Jobs & Nutrition Index (MWJNI). The major dimensions of education, health & nutrition, living standard, and economic activity receive a weight of 1/4. The dimensions of economic activity, employment, and financial inclusion each with a weight of 1/8. The dimensions of health & nutrition have sub-dimensions on the intake of a diverse diet, status of chronic illness, type of toilet, and source of drinking water each with a weight of 1/16. The sub-dimensions for the living standards are flooring, cooking fuel, assets, and electricity again with a weight of 1/16 each. Education receives a weight of 1/4. Education, financial inclusion, the standard of living (electricity, cooking fuel, sanitation), and employment exhibited major deprivations overall and across regions. Rural multidimensional deprivation is more than urban deprivation across all regions using different poverty cut-offs as evident from MWJNI values and dominance analysis. Our robustness and consistency checks including the poverty cut-off analysis, dominance analysis, and spatial maps confirm the results of the analysis. Those who experience multidimensional poverty are deprived the most in the dimensions of electricity, cooking fuel, sanitation, and financial inclusion, and the least for water and diet diversity. Kavango is the worst-performing of all regions, and ! Karas is the best. The average proportion of deprivations experienced by poor people and the corresponding dimensions are the highest in the following regions: Kunene (education), Oshana (nutrition), Kavango East and West (health), Omusati, Kavango East and West (sanitation), Kavango East and West (water), Kavango East and West (flooring), Omusati and Kavango East (cooking fuel), Omaheke (assets), Omusati and Kavango East (electricity), Omusati, Kavango East and West and Kunene (financial inclusion) and Kunene and Kavango East (unemployment). The most abundant factor of production that Namibia currently has is its land and labor assets. Any meaningful policy to reduce poverty on a sustainable basis and boost economic growth must begin to revolve around how to engage these two assets. The results from this analysis confront policymakers with clear options about building human capital around human and land resources and engaging financial inclusion that focuses on the excluded thereby encouraging the growth of MSMEs. Such policies will boost employment and output while reducing poverty and inequality.

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Paper short abstract:

We analyse from the human development perspective the informal economy of Peru, specifically the growing illegal mining. As a profitable alternative, it has attracted many people from the rural areas. But it has great impact in the insecurity and the pollution. The paper explains the consequences in the development of this informality, promoted by the State as a way to create social welfare.

Paper long abstract:

The aim of the present research is to analyze from the human development perspective the informal economy of Peru, specifically the growing illegal mining. As an economic and profitable alternative, it has attracted many people (specially from the rural area). Nevertheless, it has great impact in the insecurity and the pollution. The paper explains how the State has allowed this situation as a way to create “informal” welfare having such a limited capacity.

Professor Alisha Holland (2017) states that, in the recent decades, the Peruvian State has allowed the expansion of informal practices (specially in the urban economy) as a way to create “informal” welfare. This forbearance is used as a redistribution by the governments, that are unable to implement effective social policies. From the same perspective, we can identify that the governments have allowed informal business in the rural areas: informal and illegal mining, illegal tree felling, and their subsequent connection with drug trafficking; specially during and after the pandemic, where the lockdown and the curfews severely restricted the national economy.

The current research analysis the involvement of many people in the informal economy and how this stronger informal economy is fostering or weakening the capabilities and agency of the people from the development perspective. For this analysis, we use the concept of collective capabilities from Severine Deneulin’s view.

One of the perspectives of collective capabilities focuses on the environments in which social action and/or the agency of people takes place. These environments can be favorable or unfavorable for the development of people, both at the level of their freedom of well-being and their freedom of agency.

Irreducibly social goods are those elements spread throughout a society or culture (Taylor, 1995). These assets are not possible to divide among its members. As Gore indicates, there are aspects of development that, being constitutive of individual well-being, are not possible to study on a personal level. These irreducibly social goods are key when we evaluate the situation of a country or a group, analyzing how institutions (for example) promote or limit the well-being and agency of its citizens or a specific group. In the same way, there are cultural patterns that can limit the development of certain social groups.

Although several authors have investigated this concept, we take the conceptualization made by Severine Deneulin as a point of reference in this section, since it has provided a theoretical definition, using concepts from Paul Ricoeur and Charles Taylor, which have been replicated by others.

Severine Deneulin reviews Charles Gore's approach to highlight the importance of irreducibly social goods, and in this framework, proposes the concept of structures of living together, from Paul Ricoeur himself, as a concept "more appropriate” (2007: 110). These structures of living together “belong to a particular historical community, which provide the conditions for individual lives to flourish, and which are irreducible to interpersonal relations and yet bound up with these. [They] have an autonomous existence and cannot be reduced to the features of the individuals living in these structures” (Deneulin, 2007: 110-111).

As we mentioned, the aforementioned structures are the spaces where people develop, so they can limit or enhance the expansion of people's freedoms. The contexts “have an impact on life itself, allowing the affected person to obtain better results, but it also allows individual action to intervene in the improvement of social agreements. In this way, it could be said that there is a kind of virtuous circle between social agreements and the expansion of freedom and capabilities, mediated by interaction environments” (Pereira, 2006: 6).

In conclusion, the capabilities approach is the perspective that provides us with the tools to assess these economic structures (with a strong informal sector) in light of people's capabilities. In the research we analyze how the State forbearance for informal activities have created a new challenging situation, where the informal businesses provide an economic activity to many people, but they have promoted the use of violence and caused serious damages to the environment.

• Deneulin, Severine (2008). Beyond individual freedom and agency: Structures of living together in Sen’s capability approach to development

• Drèze, & Sen, Amartya. (2013). An Uncertain Glory : India and its Contradictions (Course Book..). Princeton University Press.

• Gore, Charles. (1997). Irreducibly social goods and the informational basis of Amartya Sen's capability approach. Journal of International Development, 9(2), 235–250.

• Hall, Kia M.Q. (2016): Introducing Joint Capabilities: Findings from a Study of Development in Honduras’ Garifuna Ancestral Villages, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, DOI: 10.1080/19452829.2016.1199168

• Holland, Alisha (2017) Reseña del libro "Forbearance as Redistribution: The Politics of Informal Welfare in Latin America.

• Ibrahim, Solava (2006) From Individual to Collective Capabilities: The Capability Approach as a Conceptual Framework for Self‐help, Journal of Human Development, 7:3, 397-416, DOI: 10.1080/14649880600815982

• Ibrahim, Solava (2013) Collective Capabilites: what are they and why are they important? Maitreyee.

• Murphy, Michael (2014) Self-determination as a Collective Capability: The Case of Indigenous Peoples, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 15:4, 320-334. DOI: 10.1080/19452829.2013.878320

• Ortrud Leßmann (2020): Collectivity and the capability approach: survey and discussion, Review of Social Economy, DOI: 10.1080/00346764.2020.1774636

• Pereira, Gustavo. (2006). Capacidades individuales y capacidades colectivas. Sistema, No 195, pp. 35-51, ISSN: 0210-0223.

• Robeyns, Ingrid (2016) Capabilitarianism, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 17:3, 397-414

• Robeyns, Ingrid. (2005) “The Capability Approach: A Theoretical Survey.” Journal of Human Development 6 (1): 93–117.

• Sen Amartya (1999) Development as Freedom. New York

• Sen, Amartya (2002). Response to commentaries. Studies in Comparative International Development, 37(2), 78–86. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686264

• Solava S. Ibrahim (2006) From Individual to Collective Capabilities: The Capability Approach as a Conceptual Framework for Self‐help, Journal of Human Development, 7:3, 397-416, DOI: 10.1080/14649880600815982

• Stewart, Frances (2005) Groups and Capabilities, Journal of Human Development, 6:2, 185-204, DOI: 10.1080/14649880500120517

• Stewart, Francis & Deneulin, Severine. (2002). Amartya Sen’s contribution to development thinking. Studies in Comparative International Development, 37(2), 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686262

• Tonon, Graciela (2018) Communities and Capabilities, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities. 19:2, 121-125, DOI: 10.1080/19452829.2018.1454288

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Paper short abstract:

Framed by discussion of negative capability the paper considers crises and forms of collaborative commitment to build inclusive institutions. Can data on gender equality and education be organised, presented and critiqued i to support connections between national, sub-national and cross national organisations? Work on the opening phase of the Bridging AGEE project is assessed.

Paper long abstract:

Working on gender data is a long established ambition of many governments and international organisations, and has significantly been influenced by work carried out through the UNDP Human Development Reports, gender reports produced by the World Bank, OECD and education data from UNESCO. But this work is not an easy task. Since approximately 2010 international organisations have remarked on a “growing backlash against gender equality and women’s rights … reversing progress and widening inequalities in many contexts” (TES, 2022). In recent years, a number of governments have evoked anti-feminist rhetoric to roll back rights, including access to education (Khan, Tant and Harper , 2023). Transnational movements, including those working among conservative and religious groups, have restricted education on sexuality and reproductive rights, LGBTQI+ rights and gender-based violence in a number of countries (OHCHR 2020; Zaremberg, Tabbush, & Friedman,2021; Velasco, 2023). These processes raise important questions about how to sustain progress made towards gender equality in education and generate the data needed to support institutions in trying to guard against the negative effects associated with intersecting inequalities, the growth of precarity and the overlapping impact of crises and injustices. Framed by a discussion of the concept of negative capability the paper considers how this may be useful in thinking about crises and forms of collaborative commitment to build and sustain institutions. The paper also considers how an understanding of conversion needs to go beyond listing particular groups of factors, and looks at the relationship between capabilities and contexts to understand forms of institution building, forms of deinstitutionalization and ideas about collaborative commitments and solidarity. To focus the discussion the analysis looks at data and its use as a particular facet of this issue. It poses questions regarding whether data on gender equality and education can be organised, presented and critiqued in ways that supports the creation of inclusive institutions and counters discourses of misogyny, often linked with setting different groups in opposition to each other. What lessons can be learned through using processes associated with generating these data as an aspect of trying to protect against the indifference and dehumanisation which contributes to processes that oppose gender equalities?

This paper documents and reflects critically on the process of collaborating to build a participatory process to audit, evaluate and supplement data to understand and monitor gender equality and education drawing together a partnership of international organisations, national governments and civil society through the AGEE (Accountability for Gender Equality in Education) project. The project is a partnership between academics at UCL and the University of Malawi and the UNESCO Section of Education for Inclusion and Gender. The project aims to address some of the difficulties of building connections across different ways of thinking about gender, and the practices associated with global, national and local processes for data generation and use in the area of gender, education and inclusion.

In critically reflecting on the opening phase of a new phase of work in AGEE in 2024 -Bridging AGEE -the paper looks at co-creation of data for describing and evaluating gender inequalities in education and the institutional architecture for measuring gender equality and education, engaging with discussions of solidarity in recent work on human development (Gasper and Gomez, 2023 2023), the concept of negative capability, outlined in earlier papers on education and data (Unterhalter, 2018) and gender and education (Khalid and Rose, 2023). The paper considers how negative capabilities might denote harmful practices, contextual relationships, and silenced voices. In reflecting on some difficult and sensitive issues in establishing Bridging AGEE at national, sub-national and cross national scales – the paper discusses how data and the process of participatory reflection on data can be used to better understand settings of negative capabilities and seek to change these.

References

Gasper, D., & Gómez, O. A. (2023). Solidarity and Human Insecurity: Interpreting and Extending the HDRO’s 2022 Special Report on Human Security. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 1-11.

Khalid, A., & Rose, P. (2023). “We Look Ahead Where his Thoughts Never Reach”: Pakistani Mothers’ Agency to Expand Educational Opportunities for Their Daughters and the Theorisation of Negative Capability. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 24(1), 98-117.

Khan, A., Tant, E., & Harper, C. (2023). Facing the backlash: what is fuelling anti-feminist and anti-democratic forces?. ALIGN Framing paper. London: ODI (www. alignplatform. org/resources/briefing-facing-backlash).

TES, 2022, Transforming Education Summit New York: United Nations

Unterhalter, E. (2020). Negative capability? Measuring the unmeasurable in education. In Unterhalter, E. ed. Measuring the Unmeasurable in Education (pp. 1-16). Abingdon: Routledge.

Zaremberg, G., Tabbush, C., & Friedman, E. J. (2021). Feminism (s) and anti-gender backlash: lessons from Latin America. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 23(4), 527-534.

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Paper short abstract:

Utilizing NFHS-5 (2019-21) data, we assessed life expectancy and pre-mature mortality disparities between multidimensionally poor and non-poor. 23% multidimensional poverty was estimated using 11 indicators across 3 dimensions. The birth history and household reported deaths have been utilised for mortality estimation; the multidimensionally poor showed a 4-year lower life expectancy at birth.

Paper long abstract:

Background

In the past decade, significant strides have been made globally to combat poverty and enhance overall health, yet disparities persist both within and between nations. The global multidimensional poverty index (G-MPI) indicates a notable decline in multidimensional poverty, from 32% (1.7 billion people) in 2010 to 19% (1.2 billion people) in 2022. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia have the largest populations of poor individuals. Despite a rise in global average life expectancy from 66.8 years in 2000 to 73.4 years in 2019, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and respiratory conditions continue to be major contributors to global mortality, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

The Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) have been pivotal in providing multidimensional poverty estimates through G-MPI, assessing deprivation in health, education, and living standards. Some countries have adapted this framework to their contexts by including additional indicators such as food insecurity, healthcare access, school attendance, and water reliability. Literature consistently highlights the strong association between poverty and adverse health outcomes, including higher morbidity, disability, and premature mortality. Factors beyond monetary poverty, such as household wealth and socio-economic circumstances, significantly influence health disparities and life expectancy.

India, with a rapidly growing economy and a vast population, has made substantial progress in reducing multidimensional poverty from 55% in 2005-06 to 16% in 2019-21. Simultaneously, life expectancy has risen from 63 years in 2000 to 70 years in 2020, and the infant mortality rate has significantly decreased. However, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) now account for a significant portion (66%) of all deaths in India in 2019, emphasizing the necessity for targeted interventions to address persistent inequalities.

This study aims to provide essential estimates of life expectancy and premature mortality among multidimensionally poor and non-poor individuals in India. It seeks to address the uneven progress in reducing multidimensional poverty, the concerning rise in premature mortality, and the dearth of studies examining the relationship between multidimensional poverty and health outcomes, particularly longevity and premature mortality. By exploring these dynamics, this study aims to deepen our understanding of how multidimensional poverty affects life expectancy and mortality in India, contributing to a more nuanced comprehension of the intricate interplay between poverty and health outcomes.

Methodology

This study utilized data from the fifth National Family and Health Survey (NFHS) conducted between 2019-21, a cross-sectional multi-round survey that provides comprehensive information on health, nutrition, and family welfare at national and sub-national levels. The survey collected information from 2,843,917 individuals in 636,699 households using two-stage stratified random sampling. The data collected included various indicators related to health, education, and standard of living.

To estimate multidimensional poverty, the Alkire-Foster (A-F) methodology was employed. This method uses a dual cut-off counting approach to categorize individuals as multidimensionally poor or non-poor. The study incorporated three dimensions - education, health, and standard of living - with each dimension being assigned an equal weight of 0.33. Among the 11 indicators used, two were related to education, three to health, and six to standard of living. The incidence of poverty (H), intensity of poverty (A), and Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) were calculated using these indicators. Notably, the dimensions used in MPI construction did not include any mortality indicators.

Regarding life expectancy, premature mortality, and adult mortality estimation, the study employed the life table method following a methodology developed by Gupta and Sudharsanan (2021). Person-years and deaths were estimated for various age groups, and the age-specific death rate (ASDR) was calculated. The ASDR was utilized to construct abridged life tables, which were then used to estimate life expectancy at birth, premature mortality (0q70), and adult mortality (45q15). Premature mortality (0q70) was defined as the probability of death under the age of 70 years, while adult mortality (45q15) was defined as the probability of death at the working age (from 15 to 60 years).

Life tables were constructed separately for multidimensionally poor and non-poor individuals and further stratified by sex (male and female). Confidence intervals for each specified group were estimated using popular bootstrap methods using publically available spreadsheet of Monte Carlo simulation.

Result

Multidimensional Poverty Levels: 23% of India's population experienced multidimensional poverty, 26% was vulnerable, and 6% endured severe poverty (Table 1). There were substantial regional variations, with states such as Bihar (46%), followed by Uttar Pradesh (35%) and Jharkhand (34%) had the highest prevalence rates, whereas Lakshadweep (1.9%), Goa (2.3%), and Kerala (2.5%) having the lowest levels of multidimensional poverty.

Life Expectancy at Birth (LEB): Life expectancy at birth was found to be 4 years lower among those experiencing multidimensional poverty compared to those who were not multidimensionally poor (poor: 66.1 years vs non-poor 69.6 years). This reduction in life expectancy was consistent across different caste and religion groups in India. The disparity in life expectancy between multidimensionally poor and non-poor individuals decreased at older ages.

Gender Disparities in Life Expectancy: Notably, there was a gender-based difference in life expectancy among individuals living with and without multidimensional poverty. The gap in life expectancy at birth between multidimensionally poor and non-poor males was 5.2 years, significantly higher than the 1.6 years observed among females.

Premature Mortality (0q70): Premature mortality (probability of death under age 70) was significantly higher among those experiencing multidimensional poverty. The males, in particular, faced a higher burden of premature mortality, emphasizing the health challenges associated with multidimensional poverty.

Adult Mortality (45q15): The pattern of adult mortality (probability of death at working ages, 15-60 years) indicated a higher mortality rate among those living in multidimensional poverty. Differences in adult mortality between the poor and non-poor were more pronounced among males.

Conclusion

These findings underline the critical need to address multidimensional poverty comprehensively, considering its profound impact on life expectancy, health outcomes, and mortality rates. Tailored interventions addressing regional disparities and gender-specific challenges are imperative to improve the overall well-being and life prospects of those affected by multidimensional poverty in India.

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Paper short abstract:

The struggles faced by the ‘second sex’ or by women have been theorized and brought up in activism as the state of women globally, remains dismal. The paper uses the human development and capabilities approach to understand the patterns of women’s employment, women’s education, and how it is intertwined with the level of economic performance and the growth of human development across countries.

Paper long abstract:

The struggles faced by the ‘second sex’ or by women have been theorized and brought up in activism as the state of women globally, remains dismal. There have been various methods and to capture the deprivations faced by women, however, it has been argued that a household-based measure of poverty limits the reality of women, and does not talk about the ‘Invisible Inequalities.’ Women take the lion’s share of unpaid work with increases digital divide, creating hurdles for knowledge and skill enhancement. On the contrary, there is increasing evidence that women are more likely to attain higher education than men. Due to this anomaly, where education attainment is gender-equal (at the primary level), but employment attainment is even more unequal across gender, there is a need to re-look at the role of education. Durkheim (1956) believed that the education system has two key roles: the socialisation of the young into society, including preparation for their future adult roles, and selection into the occupational structure based on individual achievement. The latter seems to be a bone of contention with movement towards education, but not as much towards employment. Within education, this not only represents further symptoms of the ‘diploma disease’ but a social revolution that fundamentally challenges our understanding of education, efficiency and social justice.

There is also a correlation between social class origins and education is at least as high as that between years of schooling and earnings, implying that the intersections of gender and economic capabilities might further make certain women more vulnerable and limit access to economic opportunities. The evidence for India shows that the generational mobility exists in terms of education and occupation, wherein the occupational mobility is lower than the educational mobility, implying that the changes in occupations have not occurred as frequent as the transitions in educational outcomes. When poverty combines with gender inequality, the result is acute failure of central human capabilities.

The human development and capabilities approach allows an understanding of how complex the state of women is, and the capability deprivations and inequalities in accessing labour markets, access to social opportunities and knowledge. The capabilities approach will provide a theoretical base to engage with the functionings (education, employment) at the national level, and further deep-dive into specific case analysis to detangle and identify the access and process disconnects for women’s empowerment.

The paper aims to understand what is the employment of women and education pattern for women, and how it is intertwined with the level of economic performance as well as the growth of human development. The paper will use Data from UNDP – Human Development, Gender Development, Gender Inequality as well Social Norms, across countries to capture the same. The paper will apply basic statistical analysis to determine the interlinkages of women’s education, women’s employment, growth of human development and economic performance; identify the patterns and draw out “achievement” or “well-performing” country cases for a deep-dive analysis.

(Note: The work presented here is an independent research effort and does not represent the institute.)

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Paper short abstract:

We employ a multi-system integrated assessment model to project multi-dimensional poverty. We produce global and country-level projections under three scenarios: a base case, a counterfactual, and a policy push with a 2050 horizon. SDG 1.2 is not met by 2030, or even 2050 under base case. Even with a policy push, a handful of countries fail to meet the target by 2050.

Paper long abstract:

Keywords: SDG, multidimensional poverty, human development, projection, policy intervention

Context and Motivation:

Multidimensional poverty (MP) is a shift from exclusively assessing poverty through monetary deprivation. Unlike the traditional poverty measures, MP considers a comprehensive set of well-being needs. It addresses some of the shortcomings of uni-dimensional income or consumption-based measures and is crucial for understanding the breadth and severity of poverty dynamics. The comprehensive nature of the indicator helps policy makers design more focused policy interventions. Projections of MP at a global scale and over a long time horizon are useful in designing policy interventions for sustainable development and address global long-horizon crises like the climate change.

Measurement:

Measurement of multidimensional poverty begins with identifying essential components of well-being, including income, education, health, access to basic services like water, sanitation, electricity, or communication, or ownership of minimum assets required for functioning. Poverty thresholds are established for each component, categorizing individuals as poor or non-poor based on their status relative to these thresholds. These simultaneous deprivations are then combined with appropriate weights, and an aggregate cut-off is set to identify multidimensionally poor individuals or households. Measures such as the headcount ratio and other higher-order poverty indicators are then computed, adjusting for the intensity of multi-dimensional poverty, i.e., the average of the share of poverty dimensions experienced by each household or individual (Alkire and Foster, 2011; Alkire et al., 205).

Current Projections:

Data from comprehensive household surveys, such as the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), have facilitated the development of multidimensional poverty indices for numerous countries over several years. Today, several international indices are available, including the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) by the UNDP and Oxford University, which assesses deprivation across three dimensions: health, education, and living standards, for ten indicators (UNDP and OPHI, 2023). Recently, the World Bank introduced the Multidimensional Poverty Measure (MPM), comprising six indicators across three dimensions: monetary, education, and access to basic infrastructure (Diaz-Bonilla et al., 2023).

Alkire et al (2023) used dynamic models to project MPI for a large number of countries over a short horizon using historical MPI data to select the appropriate rate-of-change models and to calibrate the parameters for those models. Dynamic univariate models are not capable of assessing the impact of policy interventions and compare them across scenarios.

Methodology:

Our paper uses a long-horizon global integrated assessment model, International Futures system (IFs) to project MPI for the World, income groups, regions and 189 countries for an end of the century time horizon. IFs is a large-scale, integrated global modeling system designed to explore long-term patterns and trends across multiple dimensions of human development (Hughes, 2019). The model provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing and projecting a wide range of variables and indicators related to global development, including demographics, economics, energy, environment, education, health, governance, and international relations.

MP for the study is initialized with the World Bank’s MPM (Diaz-Bonilla et al., 2023). IFs model projects almost all the sub-dimensions and indicators used in MPM. We compute future MPI as a composite of the sub-dimensional projections and through an analytic approach. We check the robustness of the projections by conducting cross-comparisons.

The paper uses three scenarios: a base case, a counterfactual and a policy push. The base case in the IFs model depicts the continuation of the current development trajectory. It offers an insight into the projected path of the world if there are no major policy changes, no major shocks, or no technological game changers. In the counterfactual scenario, countries are forced to attain the SDG 1.2 of halving MP (UN 2015) within the target date. In the more realistic policy push scenario, a number of aggressive but realistic policy interventions are combined in a coordinated policy push.

Analysis and results:

We do not have data on MPM for 2015 for all countries. For countries with a starting point after 20165, we add 15 years to the starting point to determine the SDG target year. Our analysis finds that the world fails to meet the SDG 1.2 within this timeline. Income group wise, low-income and some lower-middle-income countries would fail to reach the target of halving MP even by 2050. Under the policy push scenario, many countries are able to halve MP in 15 years, most countries reach the target by 2050. However, a handful of Sub-Saharan African countries, e.g., South Sudan, CAR, Guinea-Bissau, fail to meet the target even by 2050 despite the policy push. These are our preliminary results.

Conclusion:

This paper proposes to contribute to the existing literature on multidimensional poverty by providing a long-range analysis of multi-dimensional poverty and the uncertainty around meeting important global goals like the SDG. By examining the potential impact of economic, social, and demographic changes on poverty levels across multiple dimensions, the paper informs evidence-based policy-making and contribute to efforts aimed at achieving sustainable development goals.

References:

Alkire, Sabina, et al. (2023). "On Track or Not? Projecting the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index." Journal of Development Economics. 165, 103150. doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2023.103150.

Alkire, Sabina, et al. (2015). Multidimensional Poverty Measurement and Analysis. Oxford: Oxford Academic.

Alkire, Sabina, & James Foster. (2011). “Counting and multidimensional poverty measurement.” Journal of Public Economics, 95(7–8), 476-487.

Diaz-Bonilla, Carolina, et al. (2023). “November 2023 Update to the Multidimensional Poverty Measure - What’s New (English).” Global Poverty Monitoring Technical Note, No. 34. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group.

Hughes, Barry B. (2019). International Futures: Building and Using Global Models. London: London Academic Press.

Hughes, B.B., et al. (2015). Reducing Global Poverty: Patterns of Potential Human Progress Volume 1. Abingdon: Routledge.

Moyer, J.D., et al. (2022). “How Many People is the COVID-19 Pandemic Pushing into Poverty? A Long-term Forecast to 2050 with Alternative Scenarios.” PLoS One, 17(7).

UNDP and OPHI. (2023). Global Multidimensional Poverty Index 2023: Unstacking Global Poverty – Data for High-impact Action, United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), University of Oxford.

UN. 2015. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015, 42809, 1-13.

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Paper short abstract:

To lift 500,000 people from extreme poverty by 2030, a multidimensional poverty measure was created using Alkire-Foster method, and each family has its progress constantly assessed. Through practical initiatives and partnerships, we show preliminary results from the field, with data about 30,000 people, and generate knowledge to impact social assistance policy for tackling poverty in the region.

Paper long abstract:

Introduction

Reducing poverty worldwide is an urgent humanitarian issue and crucial for the global climate agenda. In Brazil, this correlation becomes even more direct, as the country's carbon emissions are directly linked to deforestation rates, and studies demonstrate that preserved forests are forests where people live with dignity. As we know, Brazil is a large and complex country; it has been and still is a benchmark for overcoming poverty; but unfortunately, due to recent setbacks, it is back on the UN hunger map.

The Brazilian Legal Amazon, which covers nine states and accommodates urban populations, rural communities, and forest peoples (extractive communities, riverside dwellers, indigenous peoples, and quilombolas ), faces significant socioeconomic and environmental challenges. With a population of approximately 28 million, over a third of whom are considered poor. Access to essential public services, including electricity, sanitation, and waste collection, remains inadequate, even in urban contexts. From the perspective of sustainable development, the Amazon is divided into five major zones : Forested Amazon, Pressured Forested Amazon, Deforested Amazon, Non-Forested Amazon, and Urban Amazon - where about two-thirds of the population resides.

In the face of this challenging context, a program to combat extreme poverty in Brazil has been developed, involving the private sector, civil society, and governments, with the aim of helping 500,000 people lift from extreme poverty by 2030.

Methodology

The methodology focuses on the family unit, from a perspective of poverty as a multidimensional phenomenon prioritizing the following dimensions: income, education, health, nutrition, and infrastructure. Through this methodology, we aim to address poverty as a deprivation of essential rights that go beyond income. Ultimately, as Amartya Sen has taught us, we aim to address poverty as a deprivation of freedom to make choices about one's life. However, facing poverty as a multidimensional problem on this scale might seem like an insurmountable challenge.

We use the Alkire-Foster method, grounded in Sen's theory, to generate a multidimensional poverty index, modeled with the same prioritized dimensions for action. This index will be used for the initial diagnosis of each family's situation. However, in our program, we aim to use this methodology not only to assess poverty but also to generate solutions through practical initiatives, in partnerships with companies, NGOs, and especially with local governments. Therefore, each family will be surveyed between 5 and 7 times over the course of two years, and their progress monitored. With this approach, in addition to the fieldwork aimed at effectively lifting people out of poverty, we intend to generate knowledge about poverty in the Amazon region and poverty dynamics, generating quality primary data about families longitudinally.

Results

Currently, we are working with 30,000 people living in the Brazilian Amazon, in fifteen diverse locations, ranging from deep forest areas, only accessible after more than 12 hours by boat, to major cities. In addition to measuring the poverty situation, we have developed, in conjunction with each family, an action plan outlining pathways to exit poverty using available public policies and social projects in each locality. We systematically repeat the multidimensional metric to monitor progress while supporting and tracking the implementation of the action plan. Based on the data, we work closely with each family for at least two years to determine the best approach to overcoming poverty. Data analysis and the active involvement of families will provide insights into areas of difficulty that we may not be aware of, allowing us to create innovative solutions for social programs and improve public policy. Partial results from the field are promising and we can highlight key findings:

- A concerning reality regarding nutrition in all profiles and locations (with a slightly better situation in rural areas). More than 60% of the children enrolled in the program are in a situation of food insecurity.

- We have identified different poverty profiles in urban areas - where infrastructure performs better; rural areas - where nutrition is better; and forest areas - where deprivations are higher in all dimensions.

- We also see a more accelerated dynamics than expected in the preliminary results, with families quickly changing their poverty index after a few months of action.

Field results lead us to question the methodology not only for monitoring poverty but also for creating solutions in a practical and diverse manner. Our main objective in 2024 is to evaluate which solutions will allow us to scale up the number of supported families in the coming years to reach five hundred thousand people enrolled by 2028 at the latest. Therefore, we are also aware that the main risk for the program is scaling up in a short time, which is only possible if we successfully coordinate with governments at the federal, state, and municipal levels. Ultimately, our main objective is to support the improvement of Brazilian social assistance public policy.

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Paper short abstract:

We propose a key measure of multidimensional poverty operationalizing the Capability Approach to complement the consumption poverty measure. We examined data before and after the pandemic in Indonesia and found that women and children were more prone to experience multidimensional poverty and deprivations across several indicators, prompting the need for urgent policy action.

Paper long abstract:

Research Context

Indonesia has reduced its extreme poverty levels significantly across the last ten years, achieving 1% extreme consumption poor (1.90 USD PPP per day) in 2023. Ending poverty, is however, not just about people’s monetary achievements, but importantly also about access to basic amenities to enjoy a healthy and fulfilled life. If Indonesia’s measure of poverty is broadened to include indicators used within the global Multidimensional Index (global MPI), a measure of acute multidimensional poverty, in 2020, only 2.8 percent of Indonesia’s population is shown to be experiencing acute/extreme multidimensional poverty. Having eradicated nearly all extreme poverty, whether measured by the 1.90$/day or indicators within the global MPI, Indonesia can now turn to broadening its definition of poverty commensurate with its middle-income status and its target of achieving high income status in 2045. The focus of this new national level multidimensional poverty measure should not only be on monitoring progress in eliminating extreme poverty, however, should also evaluate achievements across the poor and those vulnerable to poverty, particularly as Indonesia aims to broaden the reach of its social protection programmes.

With this background in mind, this paper analyses results from a series of FGDs conducted in September to November 2023, hosted by the Fiscal Policy Agency, Ministry of Finance Republic of Indonesia and UNICEF Indonesia. These discussions brought together key stakeholders concerned with poverty alleviation in Indonesia, to choose relevant dimensions, indicators and weights needed to formulate a moderate multidimensional poverty measure for Indonesia. This measure specifically sought to include indicators that are sensitive to child and gender issues and aligned closely to Indonesia’s key development goals. We then applied results of these participatory exercises to National Socio-Economic (SUSENAS) survey data from 2019 and 2023. Our aim was to monitor changes in indicator level deprivation, MPI headcount and intensity, before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. We conducted disaggregations across urban-rural, province and sub-district areas, and importantly across gender and age, to examine whether the pandemic affected males and females differently and whether children’s deprivation patterns differed from those of adults.

Methodology and Key Preliminary Findings

Our research employed a mixed method approach and was divided into two general steps. The first step consisted of qualitative Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) conducted across two months in September to November 2023, including representatives of all key line ministries connected with poverty alleviation programmes in Indonesia (Ministry of Social Affairs, the Vice President’s Office on Accelerating Poverty Alleviation, Ministry of National Development Planning, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Education, Coordinating Ministry of Human Development and Culture, National Bureau of Statistics Indonesia and representatives of local governments). The purpose of these FGDs was to gather opinions on how best to measure moderate multidimensional poverty in Indonesia, i.e., which dimensions, indicators and weights should be included within such a measure. In addition to these FGDs, we also conducted online surveys across line ministries to gather opinions on indicator choices and appropriate thresholds to use to define deprivation within each indicator. Trend analysis was conducted to examine FGD results, which were then triangulated with key outcomes from the online questionnaires. This qualitative exercise resulted in the selection of four dimensions, i.e., Education, Health, Living Standards and Employment, along with 15 indicators used to proxy deprivation within each of these dimensions. Although the general framework of the measure followed that of the global MPI, significant changes were made regarding indicator cutoffs to reflect Indonesia’s key development goals. As an example, for Education, the cutoff for “School Attendance” was made more stringent, requiring that all children attend school until the age they complete high school. Additional gender and child specific indicators were also added, such as child marriage, child labour and access to birth control.

Within the second step of our research, we mapped chosen indicators, cutoffs, and weights, to data available within the National Socio-Economic Survey (SUSENAS). We employed the Alkire-Foster method to compute the M0, H (headcount) and A (intensity of poverty) for Indonesia. We analyzed results for 2019 (just before the Government officially announced the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic) and the most recent available dataset, i.e., 2023. We measured moderate MPI poverty trends before and after the pandemic, looking at reductions in both headcount and intensity of poverty. Susenas allows disaggregations up to the district level, which enabled us to examine which districts reduced poverty the most from 2019 to 2023. Importantly, we analyzed how moderate multidimensional poverty was experienced by women vs. men and children vs. adults. We found that women and children were more prone to experience moderate multidimensional poverty, highlighting the importance of gender and child inclusive policies. Although our indicators could only focus on access, zooming into education and health indicators confirmed the global recognition on learning loss and low access to healthcare. When data allows us to assess the quality of what is accessed, these deprivations can only get deeper.

Preliminary Conclusions and Policy Relevance

Following Sen’s Capability Approach, development should focus on more concrete matters not just monetary achievements, i.e., on whether societies and individuals within them are able to reach their full potential. Indonesia is currently at a cross roads, preparing to embrace a higher level of economic development. As Sen so poignantly notes, “Economic growth without investment in human development is unsustainable and unethical”. Our findings highlight the need to focus on multiple aspects of human development. Our proposed measure of moderate multidimensional poverty places individuals and households at the center of development strategies. Information on joint deprivations and disaggregations provides crucial evidence supporting fiscal and social-policy decision making processes within the Government of Indonesia.

Key words: Capability Approach, moderate multidimensional poverty, Indonesia

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Paper short abstract:

How has the state of human development across Philippine provinces behaved in the last two decades and how have crises influenced these? How have these provinces’ HDI converged around “clubs” and how could these groups be characterized? This proposed paper seeks to present an exploratory analysis of the Human Development Index (HDI) and key sub-indicators and variations over a long period.

Paper long abstract:

Human development in the Philippines, as in the rest of the world, has suffered subsequent years of decline under the global pandemic. Prior to this crisis, the Philippines’ Human Development Index (HDI) has been growing constantly over about two decades, albeit slowing in the years before the COVID-induced crisis. However, this long-term trend of constant though flattening growth in the national HDI masks the heterogeneity at the subnational level.

Provinces’ performance in the HDI and its sub-indices on life expectancy, education, and income have been highly variable from 1997 to 2015 (Philippine Human Development Network, 2021). With this variability and unclear pathway upwards, localities have largely remained in their respective human development groupings. Metro Manila—the political and economic center of the country—have kept its status among the high human development tier over two decades. In contrast, the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (BARMM)—a region that has recently won greater autonomy after a landmark peace agreement that settled a decades-long rebellion—remained stuck in a conflict trap with very low levels of human development (Monsod, 2022).

This proposed paper seeks to present an exploratory analysis of the subnational HDI, its component indexes and variables, and its variations (focusing on but not limited to the inequality adjusted HDI). Key angles of exploration include the following. First, do the HDI performance of provinces convergence in the sense of the neoclassical theory of growth (a la Solow, Barro & Sala-i-Martin, and subsequent authors), and under which conditions? Secondly, and related to the prior point of inquiry, how do the provinces converge among clusters or “clubs” and what factors characterize these? Thirdly, how do crises—not only violent conflict that has been persistent in BARMM but also natural disasters that permeate the ring of fire and the Pacific-facing eastern seaboard—influence provincial HDI?

Initial references:

Balisacan, A.M., and N. Fuwa (2004). “Going Beyond Cross-Country Averages: Growth, Inequality and Poverty Reduction in the Philippines," World Development 32: 1891-1907.

Monsod, T. (2022). “Human Development and Violent Conflict in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, 2022 to 2020.” In F. Lara and N. de la Rosa. Conflict’s Long Game: A Decade of Violence in the Bangsamoro. Manila, Philippines: International Alert.

Philippine Human Development Network (2021). “Human Development in Philippine Provinces.” In Philippine Human Development Report 2020/21. Queon City, Philippines: Human Development Network Foundation, Inc.

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Paper short abstract:

Amidst the pandemic, global supply chain disruptions severely impacted labour markets, with women bearing disproportionate consequences, notably in labour-intensive manufacturing sectors. This quantitative study in Sri Lanka analyzes the pandemic's impact on women's employment. Results reveal significant job losses and widening gender pay gaps, emphasizing the need for gender-responsive policies.

Paper long abstract:

Research Context

Stringent restrictions implemented during the Covid-19 pandemic by governments worldwide led to sudden disruptions in global supply chains, causing disruptions in the labour markets and livelihoods. Both genders suffered from the pandemic, but women experienced disproportionate impacts due to labour market disruptions. One of the sectors hit hardest, is labour-intensive manufacturing, where women's representation is notably high.

Sri Lanka, with no exception, faced significant challenges due to mobility restrictions imposed amidst the pandemic. Export-oriented industries were severely affected in the initial phase due to sudden lockdowns, which rendered industry functioning impossible. In later phases, conditions were relaxed for export-oriented industries like apparel, as the economy heavily depends on those exports. However, to operate while adhering to health guidelines, many manufacturers resorted to layoffs and wage cuts, adversely impacting workers' economic, human, and social well-being. Evidence highlights dire circumstances faced by female workers, including heightened unemployment, diminished incomes, and deteriorating working conditions. On the other hand, many women voluntarily quit their jobs due to difficulties created by the crisis, increasing the burden of care work. Thus, there is a case for analyzing the pandemic's impact on women in Sri Lanka’s manufacturing sector through an industry- and occupation-specific analysis to identify the hardest-hit industries and occupations and assess women's circumstances within them in terms of employment, income, and working conditions. Amidst a surge in published studies globally on gendered impacts of the pandemic with newly collected data, this study aims to provide quantitative evidence utilizing secondary data, as there remain ample opportunities to address this research gap, leveraging innovative approaches with existing data sources.

Methodology

The effects on women in manufacturing industries are delineated across three key domains: number of job losses, income, and working hours—a proxy for working conditions. Industries were identified using the International Standard Classification of Industries (ISICr4) at 2-digit level, and occupation categories were identified at 10 major groups outlined in the International Standard Classification of Occupation (ISCO). The study primarily relies on Sri Lankan Labour Force Survey (LFS), conducted quarterly by the Department of Census and Statistics (DCS). Quarterly data from 2019 to 2021 were employed to capture pre- and post-pandemic periods, with the second quarter of 2020, coinciding with the onset of the pandemic, serving as the reference point for analysis. To detect the job losses, population estimates of the number of employed persons were calculated based on the sample observations in the survey across quarters. Wage and working hours were averaged values of monthly primary income from LKR and actual hours worked during the last week of the survey within industries and occupation categories. Export data from the ITC Trade Map and industry output data from the Annual Survey of Industries by the DCS were mapped with LFS data as needed to identify the export orientation of industries. Descriptive statistics were employed to visually depict the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on women.

Analysis and Conclusion

Comparing pre-pandemic (2019) and pandemic (2020) export data, results show that two of the most severely affected industries - tobacco and leather - are female-dominated. Between the first and last quarters of 2020, while job numbers increased across other industries for both genders, manufacturing industries suffered job losses according to the results. Female job losses in manufacturing industries reached 16.29%, surpassing male job losses at 5.95%. Key exporting industries- apparel, food, rubber, and textiles- have also reported noteworthy female job losses at levels of 10.77%, 14.20%, 9.05%, and 27.28% respectively. The female dominated paper products industry, recorded the highest immediate female job loss at 81.22% from the first to the second quarter of 2020. The wood products industry is the next highly affected industry with a 65.19% female job loss. Importantly, more than 50% of employed women in paper and wood industries are engaged in informal employment.

In the Sri Lankan labour market, it is evident that a persistent gender pay gap prevails disadvantaging women over the years. Notably, within the key exporting industries of apparel and food, this disparity in pay of managerial occupations widened from pre-pandemic to post-pandemic, ranging from LKR 19,016 to LKR 90,107 and LKR 5,779 to LKR 19,580, respectively. It is worth highlighting that female employees in elementary-level occupations were disproportionately impacted by salary increases compared to those in managerial and professional occupations. Salaries for female managerial occupations experienced significant increases from early 2019 to late 2021, while salaries for women in elementary occupations showed only marginal growth, despite minimal changes in working hours over the same period.

The occupational and industrial segregation of Sri Lankan labour market exacerbates women's exposure to the pandemic's economic ramifications far more than men. Women are predominantly employed in labour-intensive manufacturing industries, which are highly susceptible to external shocks. They are often concentrated in low-paying elementary jobs compared to men, resulting in substantial wage disparities. Moreover, a significant proportion of temporary workers in manufacturing industries are female, indicating heightened vulnerability. These gender disparities stem from factors on both the supply and demand sides. On the supply side, increased household responsibilities, and limited childcare options may force women to allocate more time to unpaid care work reducing their work commitments compared to men. On the demand side, the disproportionate impact on women is attributed to their higher employment rates in sectors severely affected by external shocks, as well as their more precarious employment contracts.

The results underscore the imperative for implementing gender-responsive mechanisms to mitigate the detrimental impacts of future pandemics. As women are extra vulnerable to the pandemics, without interventions addressing underlying structural issues, women are poised to endure ongoing employment crises, both amid pandemics and beyond. While generating employments in less vulnerable sectors is a gradual process and macroeconomic phenomena, microlevel interventions to minimize impact on women should be explored in the short-term. Gender-responsive active labour market policies, such as employment retention measures, wage subsidies with gender balance criteria and initiatives supporting women's employability, will help mitigate job losses and facilitate reintegration into the workforce.

Key words: export-oriented industries, labour-intensive manufacturing, pandemic, women

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Paper short abstract:

This is an empirical investigation of a third sector’s impact in reducing multidimensional poverty in Kolkata slums. In 2019, Calcutta Rescue developed a slum-specific index for assessing multidimensional poverty in 23 slums by using a self-designed primary survey. The survey is being repeated in 2024 across 25 slums to explore how multidimensional poverty has changed during the past five years.

Paper long abstract:

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have set target 1.2 to reduce poverty in all its forms and target 11.1 to upgrade slums by 2030. Employing the Demographic Health Survey datasets, NITI Aayog found that nationally 135 million people had escaped multidimensional poverty between 2015/16 and 2019/21. However, nationally representative surveys often do not appropriately cover urban slum areas consisting of informal settlements. Generally, urban slums are characteristically distinct from other areas, lack of adequate infrastructure and basic amenities and witness rapid rural-urban migration. Both governmental- and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) play active roles in their attempts to alleviate poverty and to improve the livelihood of slum dwellers. In this paper, we specifically explore the impact of the interventions of Calcutta Rescue (CR), which is a medium-size NGO providing essential services to Kolkata-based underprivileged slum dwellers, in reducing multidimensional poverty in the areas that the NGO covers.

Calcutta Rescue developed a slum-specific index for assessing multidimensional poverty in 2019 drawing from the well-known counting approach based Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (G-MPI), which was founded on the capability approach framework. For the construction of CR’s index of multidimensional poverty, three broad dimensions (i.e., Health, Education and Standard of living) were chosen, which were further subdivided into seventeen indicators. The choice of such extensive set of indicators has been justified by how Calcutta Rescue provides support to the beneficiaries. In 2019, the new slum-specific index of multidimensional poverty was used to rank twenty-three slums where CR had a working presence and to better understand the degree of multiple deprivations across these slums by using a self-designed primary household survey across 867 families. The household survey is being repeated in 2024 across twenty-five slums to explore how multidimensional poverty has changed during the past five years. The present household survey is currently underway, where CR has completed interviews in ten slums so far. The aim is to collect a sample of 1,200 households for the 2024 round of the survey. To ensure consistency of comparison across slums over time, we utilise systematic sampling techniques across both household surveys interviewing 30 or 20% of households in each slum, whichever is larger.

Our preliminary results, based on the partly-completed survey in ten slums, show that multidimensional poverty levels have fallen with respect to the previous round in most slums if not in all slums and, overall, the highest deprivation is observed in the fear of eviction, housing materials and disease knowledge in the previous survey round. We aim to conduct further analysis when the survey is completed around mid-April. Besides examining the trends in multidimensional poverty as well as the change in the composition of multidimensional poverty over the past five years in the slums, we aim to conduct microeconomic analysis of the key household specific factors and slum characteristics that are associated with higher or lower multidimensional deprivations at the household level. We further aim to scrutinise the policies implemented by the CR in response to the 2019 survey as well as the external factors (e.g., the Covid-19 pandemic, governmental policy changes etc.) that may have played crucial roles during 2019-2024.

Although our current study is focused on the slums of one specific region, but our study has wider implications. The policy lessons learnt from our study may be used as an exercise for other third sectors attempting to address multiple forms of deprivation within India as well as outside India.

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Paper short abstract:

This study scrutinizes the gap between North Korea's human rights discourse and reality, notably in women's rights, comparing official narratives from Choson Nyeosong magazine with North Korean women's perspectives. It assesses disparities in urban and rural areas, aiming to understand how human rights norms are understood and disseminated within the country.

Paper long abstract:

What are the gaps between the human rights discourse and the reality in North Korea? How does the country understand human rights? How does this understanding differ from the international norms agreed upon by the global community, and how are these norms disseminated among the public within the country? How do North Korean women perceive the human rights they experience in their context? Additionally, what differences exist between urban and rural areas?

North Korea stands out as a country with a significant disparity between official discourse and reality, as evidenced in numerous human rights reports. Women's rights are a notable example, with a large gap between the socialist ideal and women's lives on the ground. Notwithstanding the North Korean government's assertion of advocating women's rights via institutionalized laws tracing their genesis to the nation's inception in 1946, an array of human rights reports conspicuously underscore a profound incongruity between the sanctioned discourse and the tangible realities experienced by women. This research embarks upon a methodical scrutiny of the officially proffered narrative pertaining to women's rights, as enunciated within Choson Nyeosong, the monthly institutional magazine affiliated with the DPRK Women's Association. Simultaneously, it delves into the nuanced perspectives articulated by North Korean women themselves. By engaging in a parallel analysis of these dual strata of discourse, the present study endeavours to meticulously elucidate and evaluate the intricate and multifaceted interplay characterizing their relationship.

The study unfolds in two stages: first, analysing the public discourse on women's rights in North Korean institutions by examining the official texts of Choson Nyeosong magazine through topic modelling; second, investigating North Korean women's perceptions and experiences of women's rights in different regions - Pyongyang and Yanggang Province.