Paper short abstract:

Portuguese sailors, soldiers, friars and settlers came to northern Mexico and the modern United States as members of the first colonizing expeditions and settlement programs. This paper explores their histories and the impact they had on the colonization process.

Paper long abstract:

Beginning in the early sixteenth century, Portuguese sailors, soldiers, friars and settlers entered North America through Florida and through Mexico to Christianize the Native American populations and to try their luck in the New World. Most arrived as members of Spanish colonizing expeditions, others as leaders and promoters of mining and settlement projects. This paper focuses especially on the expeditions of Pánfilo de Narváez (1527-1528), Vázquez de Coronado and Hernando De Soto (1539-1542), on Juan de Oñate who colonized New Mexico at the onset of the seventeenth century, and on Luís de Carvajal, a Jewish-converso, who settled in northern Mexico in the 1590s. The aims of these colonization projects were very different and so were the people involved. Using archival documents this paper discusses the presence and roles of the Portuguese in the colonization of the Americas.

Paper short abstract:

Medina family is an example of the dynamics of the commercial elite resident in Lisbon in the beginning of the 18th century. We will follow the Medinas’s trajectory during three generations and the construction of a business network supported in family connections.

Paper long abstract:

In the beginning of the 18th century, a wave of inquisitorial imprisonments affected many members of the Lisbon's commercial elite. Among them there was Pedro Maldonado de Medina, a 62 years old blind man who had been an influent contractor in Spain. In Lisbon, he stilled transacting goods between Portugal and Brazil through his sons. But this wasn't the first time that Inquisition disturbed his life: he was 2 years old when he went to Madrid with his parents, after his grandfather's imprisonment; and in 1687, when he was in Malaga, the Inquisition of Granada arrested him. After that, he came back to Portugal. At that time, most of his family was in Spain - Toledo, Murcia, Madrid, Pastrana, Avila - operating in the tobacco and salt business. Pedro had married a daughter of the contractor Francisco Lopes Pereira. His daughters married members of Lopes Pinheiro family and moved to London. In the first half of 18th century, England was the destiny of many New Christian families in pursuit of the religious tolerance but also more business oportunities in a rising moment of anglo-portuguese commercial relations.

The inquisitorial persecution as a factor of mobility; the role of family ties in the edification of trade networks; the marriage as a guarantee of trust between business partners - this are some of the characteristics that define the Medina family's ascendant trajectory during three generations, from silk merchants in Tras-os-Montes to leaders of a wide business network.

Paper short abstract:

Analysing Francisco Inocêncio de Sousa Coutinho’s correspondence during his government (1764–1772), we attend to establish what were his priorities and how did he conceptualized Angola and African territory. So the intent is to define the mechanisms of adaption to the reality of his ideal.

Paper long abstract:

With this study we attend to deepen what were the mechanisms and concepts used by Francisco Inocêncio de Sousa Coutinho to adapt his plan for Angola, to the reality he found there.

Governor between 1764 and 1772 is recognized for being the most connected with Marquês de Pombal's project and more aligned with the Enlightenment ideals. Madeira Santos has establish how did the Enlightenment affected Angola's policy design. In this period there's an attempt to re-enforce the territorial presence in Angola, by increasing Portuguese population and government structures. More than that, there were many measures to increase the control in the commerce and justice activities.

But in fact more than establishing how was this connection or its results, done by Madalena Sousa in her dissertation. We want to analyse and prospect what were the ideas and concepts used by this governor to justify his actions to the local entities and to the central power. Focussing in its political concepts and constructions, we aim to see how the political paradigm reflected in the words of this governor.

Paper short abstract:

This paper examines self-organized smuggling networks in Nagasaki, and the ways they attempted to circumvent the official trade regulations and the position of the state-supported monopoly merchants.

Paper long abstract:

The early modern bakufu-controlled city of Nagasaki was appointed by the Tokugawa shogunate as one of the 'gates' through which official regulated trade was conducted with the outside world, in this case with the Dutch East India Company, and Chinese private merchants. In Nagasaki, foreign trade became increasingly institutionalized over the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and the Tokugawa bakufu implemented many trade systems in Nagasaki aimed at securing the influx of Chinese luxury and bulk goods, and at the same time cope with the country's financial difficulties due to the large outflow of bullion and the exhaustion of the Japanese silver and gold mines. As such, state-supported monopoly merchants controlled foreign trade in Nagasaki, under the supervision of state officials. Much research has these official trade regulations and their practical applications as a focus point. Using the Nagasaki criminal records, this paper instead focuses on smuggling as a way to circumvent these regulations. Furthermore, as a case study, this paper analyzes the smuggling networks featuring in two of the seventeenth century's famous smuggling cases. These networks show a wide variety of participants with colorful backgrounds and the methods with which they tried to engage in foreign trade, challenging the position of the state-supported monopoly merchants.

Paper short abstract:

To answer the question ‘How did free agents oppose the monopolies granted to the Dutch East and West India Companies?’ this paper analyses court cases from the Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland in which free agents and their networks sued the companies over the use and abuse of monopoly policy.

Paper long abstract:

The Dutch East and West India Companies faced sustained and effective opposition from free agents. This began as early as ideas of chartered monopoly companies were first floated in the Dutch Republic in the late sixteenth century and lasted until the companies ceased to exist two centuries later. This paper will investigate the hypothesis that the contested processes by which the charters of the VOC and WIC were drafted and eventually granted had a significant impact on the kind of opposition faced by the two companies later on in their existence.

The focus of this paper will be one specific arena of conflict: the judicial system of the Republic. One of the ways in which free agents responded to the creation of colonial monopolies was by taking the companies to court, employing litigation as a means of opposition. These merchants and their networks sued the companies over issues relating to the use and abuse of the monopolies granted to the VOC and WIC by the States General in 1602 and 1621 respectively. They pursued their cases to the very highest court in the Republic, the appellate Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland, which was established in 1582. Analysing court cases from the records of the Hoge Raad, this paper will begin to answer the following question: How did free agents oppose the monopolies held by the VOC and WIC in court?

This research will contribute to understanding mechanisms of opposition against the Dutch companies and the role of free agency.

Paper short abstract:

This paper analyzes the types of arguments (i.e. political, religious or economic) used to support public discourse in the Dutch Republic regarding free trade versus monopoly in relation to Dutch Brazil in the seventeenth century.

Paper long abstract:

To answer the question 'How did free agents in Western Europe react to the creation of colonial monopolies?' this paper will research the public discourse in the Dutch Republic through the use of pamphlets. These booklets had both an economic and rhetorical value, but this research will only focus on the latter. Since the presence of Habermas' concept of 'Öffentlichkeit' in the Low Countries during the seventeenth century is highly debatable, this paper will refrain from that term and will instead focus on analyzing the types of arguments that are used in the public discourse. In other words, it will not focus on the public opinion itself, but will instead examine the arguments used for influencing 'public opinion' and analyze whether they were economic, political, or religious.

With a comparative approach this paper will focus on the public discourse regarding free trade versus monopoly in relation to Dutch Brazil (ca. 1630-1638). While one may expect the argumentation in this case to be strictly economic, this study shows that other types of arguments (i.e. political or religious) were employed in this economic stand. It will, therefore, showcase the 'translation' authors had to make between their position and what will appeal to the reader in an attempt to convince their audience.

By showing monopolies were not only fought in court but also on paper in a public discourse, this study will contribute to research on the viewpoints of both the supporters of the WIC and the antagonists. Furthermore, it shows the way both parties used various arguments to protect their self-interest.

Paper short abstract:

This paper investigates how the trade of rogue companies, private traders and smugglers popularised the consumption of tea in Western Europe, 1700-1760. Rogue companies, private traders and smugglers pushed the boundaries of the traditional Companies’ (VOC and EIC) tea imports to Europe.

Paper long abstract:

This paper investigates how the trade of rogue companies, private traders and smugglers popularised the consumption of tea in Western Europe, 1700-1760. The globalisation of the tea trade led to new ways of organising tea trade to Europe from Canton, substantially increasing the amounts and the varieties of teas brought to Europe. By exploring the import of different varieties of tea of the Dutch (VOC) and English East India Companies (EIC), new light will be shed on the popularisation of tea drinking and its origins, both in Europe and Asia. In the creation of a market for popular tea, however, the trade of rogue companies, private traders and smugglers played a vital role, while the two big companies simply seem to follow in their footsteps. More remarkably, private enterprise had a decisive impact on competition and popularisation of tea on every step along the way from Canton to Europe. The interaction between the official Company trade and the trade of these actors will help us to understand where the popularisation of tea in Europe came from and may even challenge our views on how the monopolies of East India Companies functioned. Whilst the Companies tried to organise their monopolies entities such as Rogue companies, private traders and smugglers simply worked round them and even gave the companies who made use of their energy an edge over the competition.

Paper short abstract:

This paper presents two case-studies of Dutch colonial governors who were fired for their stance on the role of free agents in colonial trade. This sheds light on the different realities of colonial monopoly enforcement and free agents influence in the Dutch overseas empires in the East and West.

Paper long abstract:

To secure their granted monopolies, the two Dutch chartered trading companies set up elaborate systems of corporate governance in their overseas territories. The commanders, governors and governors-general of both companies were responsible for trade, military affairs as well as protecting privileges of the companies against Dutch interlopers. In practice, however, free agents seem to have been able to wield considerable influence over the companies' colonial officials. This shows one way in which free agents responded to the creation of colonial monopolies.

To answer the question to what extend the careers of colonial governors-general was influenced by their stance regarding free agents, two case-studies will be presented. Both of the Dutch trading companies are represented in the two chosen cases, allowing for comparisons between the two. Issues such as the differences of opinion between governors and their colonial colleagues, as well as with the Dutch company boards will be addressed in the paper.

In both cases, governors-general were dismissed by their companies, but they seem to have taken very different approaches regarding free agents and company privilege. In the West the governor-general took a permissive approach, allowed free trade and was ultimately being fired for it. In the East the Governor-General took a more hard-line approach regarding free trade. This gave rise to serious conflicts within the East India company's colonial hierarchy and the governor-general was ultimately fired. These two cases suggest important differences between the two Dutch chartered companies in the protection of their monopolies.

Paper short abstract:

This paper will analyse the presence in Spanish Manila of Armenian merchants from New Julfa (Iran), focusing on their complicated relationship with the Spanish authorities, their participation in both inter-Asiatic and trans-Pacific exchanges, and their life experiences as told in their own words.

Paper long abstract:

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was forbidden for foreginers to either settle in Manila or trade across the Pacific with Spain's American dominions. However, the Spanish authorities found it very difficult to make such monopolistic restrictitions effective, partly because the merchandise brought to the Philippines by Asian free agents was absolutely necessary for the survival of Manila as a colonial outpost. At the same time the presence of foreigners was a constant source of religious anxiety and ethnic fear. At times the Spanish authorities opted for punitive action against the Chinese, Muslim, Hindu and Armenian communities. This line of action, however, contrasted sharply with that of many colonial merchants who saw it fit to collaborate with foreigners.

This paper will analyse the presence in Manila of Armenian merchants from New Julfa (Iran), and will aim to bring together Spanish primary sources and the rich historiography on the Julfan trade diaspora. Attracted by the silver arriving from Acapulco, Julfans played an important commercial role in the Philippines. The paper will address their complicated relationship with the Spanish authorities, their participation in both inter-Asiatic and trans-Pacific exchanges, and their life experiences as told in their own words before the court of the Spanish Inquisition in Manila.

Paper short abstract:

In the sixteenth century, European countries engaged in long-distance trade with the East.

Paper long abstract:

In the sixteenth century, European countries engaged in long-distance trade with the East. Despite sharing the same objectives and technology, Portugal opted for a crown monopoly, England, the Netherlands, and Sweden franchised trade to private merchants, whereas in Denmark and France, king and merchants shared control. The …financial condition of the crown appears to have been relevant for the monarchs 'decision. I provide an economic mechanism to illuminate the historical variation in terms of the differences in relative endowments of king and merchants within each country. I also explore the implications of control allocation using archival data on labor compensation and shipping technology. Differences in the long run performance of merchant empires suggest a major impact of organization.

Paper short abstract:

The paper discusses the resilience of urban networks in the face of imperial attempts at monopolization, and draws conclusions on the interaction between European states, colonial cities and private entrepreneurs with limited access to political decision-making.

Paper long abstract:

Cities only exist in connection to other cities. Before the modern compression of space and time the dominant position of the metropolis was off-set by the self-sufficiency of colonies. This problem created a recurring conflict between monopolizing metropolitan institutions, and the decentralized and self-organized networks overseas. The paper presents cases from the Atlantic world (the Caribbean and North America) between 1600 and 1800 to outline how the terms on which the interested parties engaged in this conflict changed during the integration and disintegration of the Atlantic world.

Paper short abstract:

In this paper, we aim to comprehend how informal collaboration between Iberian commercial agents was sustained, trading in a global cross imperial scope.

Paper long abstract:

The Iberian union under Habsburgs' Crown was fostered on formal independent administration of the Portuguese and Spanish empires. Nevertheless, for more than 30 years, historiography has proved the interference and protagonism of Portuguese business men in trade dynamics of the Castilian Indies. However, it has been silent about the presence or/and absence of Castilian merchants in the Portuguese dominions and on their actions within global trading. Spanish literature has underlined the decline of their role as private commercial agents in the seventeenth century.

We hypothesize, based on previous work, the collaboration of Portuguese and Spanish merchants in cross-imperial trading ventures, as an opportunity and a necessity. In this paper, we aim to comprehend how this informal collaboration was sustained, trading in a global cross imperial scope. Did the Crown and its monopolies display a role in facilitating or restricting these alliances? What reasons did lead to this collaborative entanglement? Was cooperation a linear behavior or was it disturbed by both-sided complaints? What mechanisms did merchants to handle mutual suspicion? The analysis will be based on the internal dynamics of Iberian self-organized trading networks, built upon notarial, official and private correspondence and bibliography's evidence.

Paper short abstract:

My paper explores cross-cultural collaboration and the creation of informal empires through an examination of Portuguese armed forces in seventeenth-century Angola and their role in building South Atlantic slave trading networks.

Paper long abstract:

My paper explores cross-cultural collaboration and the creation of informal empires through an examination of Portuguese armed forces in seventeenth-century Angola and their participation in the slave trade to the Americas.

Angola had a difficult time attracting Portuguese settlement and faced chronic troop shortages. Beginning in the late sixteenth century, Brazilians were sent to Angola as military reinforcements for Portuguese and African troops fighting rival European powers and African states in order to expand the frontiers of the slave trade. Although many of the soldiers who served in Angola were forcibly transported as degredados (criminal and religious exiles) or slaves, many remained in Angola once their terms of service concluded. Soldiers' familiarity with multiple cultural contexts placed them in an advantageous position to extend the reach of Portuguese power in West Central Africa, but these "free agents" also used their knowledge for personal gain. Through marriage, godparentage, and military service, soldiers fostered cross-cultural alliances that strengthened existing economic networks. Rank-and-file soldiers, for whom a criminal past or skin color might have impeded social advancement in Portugal or Brazil, built slave-trading networks that stretched from Luanda to Buenos Aires, traversing the boundaries of empire.

Using criminal processes, Inquisition cases, military petitions, and political correspondence drawn from Portuguese, Spanish, and Angolan archives, I trace these trans-imperial trade routes and the collaboration that undergirded them. I argue that such soldiers set in motion the broad patterns that characterized the South Atlantic slave trade in the seventeenth century, both enhancing and subverting the metropolitan agenda.

Paper short abstract:

Besides all colonial attempts to control the slave trade in the eighteenth century, private merchants operated beyond the grasp of the Portuguese administration. Slave traders such as the Barros based their negotiations on self organizing networks that operated on both margins of the Atlantic.

Paper long abstract:

During the second half of the eighteenth century approximately 1.5 million slaves left West Central Africa, most of them heading to Brazil, especially to Rio de Janeiro. The Portuguese Crown attempted to control such valuable trade with several reforms implemented by the Marquis of Pombal (1750-1777). He strengthened colonial business by creating monopolistic commercial companies and by reestablishing the Junta do Comércio, demanding the enrolment of all merchants involved with the Atlantic trade.

Besides all attempts to control the slave trade, private merchants constituted strong communities that operated beyond the grasp of the colonial administration. Though many of them were part of the Portuguese colonial apparatus as royal officials and military officers they regularly used their positions to reinforce private slaving activities. These slave traders based their negotiations on self organizing networks that operated on both margins of the Atlantic.

The Barros family consolidated its mercantile power in the second half of the eighteenth century and became a slaving enterprise with Atlantic-wide connections, which allowed them a huge social ascension in less than two generations. They reinforced personal ties with their associates through marriages and godparenting (compadrio), stretching their influence and diminishing the high risks involved in slaving negotiations, thus guaranteeing the return of investments made. The trajectory of the Barros rises from the Portuguese archives (ANTT and AHU) as a great example of private merchant network that operated beyond the control of the Crown and positioned its agents on the most important ports of the Portuguese Atlantic.

Paper short abstract:

The three Dutch plantation colonies in current Guyana experienced a rapid expansion of their plantation economy in the late eighteenth century, unexplainable from the official mercantilist perspective. The cross-cultural, self-organized network of the colonial actors is crucial for our understanding.

Paper long abstract:

In line with recent scholarship this paper seeks to understand the colonial experience from the perspective of the local agents rather than from a more structuralist, metropolitan view. After sketching the international context, in will be shown that Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice provide an interesting case study in the practice of 'colony building.' While all three were relatively unimportant colonies in the early eighteenth century, their plantation economy expanded quickly to rival neighbouring Surinam, before they fell into British hands in 1796. During most of this time, different factions in the Dutch Republic were so pre-occupied with internal struggles that they did not pay sufficient attention to the needs and demands of the colonists. The number of Dutch ships carrying soldiers, slaves or supplies was far too small, and complaints were numerous. Therefore this paper seeks to answer the question how these colonies were able to successfully expand without sufficient metropolitan support. The assumption is that the planters' agency in their oppositional, cooperative and representative roles was crucial, by establishing cross-cultural and cross-imperial networks. We know that the colonies had a large portion of British settlers and were visited frequently by different Atlantic (contraband) traders, but the exact nature of these networks remains to be explored. Who were these planters, how did they evade or bargain with the metropolitan power and with whom did they engage in either formal or informal transactions? The sources to answer these questions will consist of cargo lists, correspondence, petitions, resolutions, maps and ship reports.