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Paper abstract

The town of Karakol was founded on the caravan route on July 1, 1869. Since its foundation, it has gradually expanded, becoming international in terms of the ethnic composition of the population.

This article will be devoted to the formation and development of commercial and industrial entrepreneurship of the city at the end of the XIX and the beginning of the XX century on the example of specific stories of individual famous trading families and their impact on the socio-economic and socio-cultural state, especially on the architectural heritage of the town of Karakol. Among the famous merchants were representatives of the tatar, kyrgyz, uighur, dungan, uzbek and other populations.

Within the framework of this article will be presented the development of entrepreneurship of the uighur and dungan ethnic groups living in Karakol and in the village of Irdyk. The shopping malls built on the initiative of uighur, dungan merchants became the basis of the original appearance of the town during the studied period. The combination of functional purpose and national decorative elements in the architecture of houses and religious temples contributed to the creation of interesting cultural objects (Dungan and Uighur mosque) representing the historical heritage of the town of Karakol.

The main sources were visual materials (photographs from archival collections, museums and private family collections) and information from oral histories of descendants of uighurs and dungans currently living in the town of Karakol and in the village of Irdyk. So, the uighurs and dungans ethnic groups, being carriers of historical memory, in their stories reflect the ethnos' own idea of their historical past and ethnic identity through language, trade practices, stories about the development of family entrepreneurship, customs, traditions, culture and religion, etc.

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This examination of the trade in rhubarb in the late 18th century shows that the Kazakh people exploited their position of dominance on the Kazakh steppe to facilitate global trade through the region, working it to their advantage. Rhubarb is a plant grown in China and craved by Europeans, who typically purchased their rhubarb from China. The Qing government’s embargo on Russia (both imports and exports) from 1785-1792, caused the price to soar in Russia. Therefore, smuggling rhubarb from Xinjiang to Russia became extremely profitable. However, whereas Andijan merchants and other Turkic merchants who smuggled rhubarb confronted severe punishment from Chinese officials, Kazakh sales persisted. This paper examines correspondence and other Qing official documents pertaining to the Chinese decision not to put an end to rhubarb trade in Kazakh lands. It focuses on Xinjiang’s frontier policies on the steppe frontier in Xinjiang to advance two arguments. First, it shows that the Kazakh-Qing frontier differed from other Qing frontiers, in that policy there was defined not only by trade interest and state security but also by identity. Second, it argues that the Kazakh Khanate was actively connected to global trade, even in the 18th century, and that Kazakhs had the power to force much larger neighboring empires to make compromises for them. Kazakhs won a critical concession from the Qing dynasty—the right to trade with Russians. This enabled them to be mediators of Chinese goods—to visit trade centers from which Russians were banned and purchase the goods for sale to Russian tradesmen.

As the discussion of rhubarb will show, the Kazakh Steppe was not, as some scholars once believed, an isolated land, but a crucial component of global trade and Kazakhs exploited its potential. This study places Kazakhs in the foreground of trade relations in the region and connects China and Russia. It shows how Kazakhs helped bring rhubarb to Europe and shaped early capital circulation on the steppe. In dialogue with the New Qing historians, it shows how the Manchu (Non-Han) identity played a significant role in shaping how borderland issues were handled—and notes how Kazakhs, too, shaped this relationship. In sum, the trade route on the Kazakh steppe did not emerge naturally but was based on the common interest between Kazakhs and surrounding empires.

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1. The first pharmacies in Turkestan were opened in Tashkent city and this became one of the most important events in the public life of the region. The first pharmacy began its activity at Tashkent military hospital in the city center. In 1869, in connection with the construction of a new hospital building, it was decided to move the pharmacy to the military hospital. However, given the remoteness of this place, part of the pharmacy functioned in the city center. It was located in a private house. 150 rubles were allocated from the state budget for equipment.

2. The first pharmacy was opened in the old part of Tashkent in 1874. The pharmacy distributed medicines to the sick among the local population free of charge. This pharmacy, built at the expense of the population in the old part of the city, was transferred to the City Council in the same year and was maintained at its expense. However, even after that, the pharmacy continued to distribute medicines free of charge to poor Uzbek and Russian patients. In 1874-1886, that is, for 13 years, the pharmacy sold medicines for a total amount of 62,629 rubles, while medicines worth 31,426 rubles were distributed free of charge. The expenses of the thought for the pharmacy in 1878-1887 amounted to 66,742 rubles.

3. In 1909, a new building was built for the pharmacy, for which 48000 rubles were spent. Specialists underwent training at the pharmacy. For example, in 1916, 10 people underwent training in this pharmacy. The training program included classes in the following subjects such as physics, chemistry, pharmacology, and formulation. The training was conducted twice a week and lasted up to 7 months. The cost of training was 20 rubles per month.

4. In 1880, the private pharmacy of pharmacist Krause was opened. Like other pharmacies, this pharmacy also served the population of new and old parts of Tashkent. In the early 20th century, a number of other private pharmacies were opened. By 1913 their number increased to 12. Their total turnover exceeded 47,000 rubles.

5. Pharmacies were opened in other cities of Turkestan such as Samarkand, Namangan, Andijan, Osh, Kokand, Kattakurgan, Avliyo-Ata, Verny (Almaty), and others. In the beginning, the local population rarely went to the pharmacy. Later, the population began to trust pharmacies and use their services.