Paper short abstract:

Asia lagged behind Africa and Europe in attention in studies of human evolution, but new discoveries and recent developments in dating techniques transform perception of antiquity and complexity of human evolution revealed in this overview highlighting major issues that still need elucidating.

Paper long abstract:

I review here the most important recent discoveries and changes in perception that are relevant to human evolutionary studies in Asia. The most important recent fossil discoveries are undoubtedly those of an early form of Homo erectus from Dmanisi, Georgia (1.75 Ma), and the late Pleistocene hobbit, H. floresiensis, from Flores, Indonesia. These apart, the most important changes have come about through the application of improved dating techniques to previous finds. These have considerably extended the time-depth of H. erectus in Asia, and in India, North China and SE Asia, it now extends back to at least 1.5 - 1.6 Ma. Major changes have also taken place in studies of recent human evolution in Asia. Although current archaeological, fossil human and genetic evidence indicates that our species dispersed across southern Asia between 40 and 60 ka, this process may have begun much earlier, and perhaps as early as the last interglacial. It is likely also considerably more complex that envisaged a few years ago because of genetic studies indicating that Neanderthals and H. sapiens in Eurasia (but not Africa) interbred, and thus all modern Eurasians contain some Neanderthal DNA. Additionally, analysis of the ancient DNA of a human phalange from Siberia indicates a sister population of "Denisovans" to Neanderthals that also contributed DNA to modern populations in Melanesia and SE Asia. Although several major gaps still exist in our understanding of human evolution in Asia, we are now beginning to glimpse its antiquity and complexity.

Professor ROBIN DENNELL: Key Paper. University of Sheffield, UK

email: r.dennell@sheffield.ac.uk

Paper short abstract:

Recent fossil discoveries: two clavicles, a 9th rib, a femur, a humerus and partial calvaria from central Narmada valley sorting out into a 'large robust' and a 'short and stocky' type of middle to late Pleistocene hominin lineages, place India on the corridors of human evolution in South Asia.

Paper long abstract:

Narmada valley is known since 1830s for unique co-occurrences of Quaternary mega-terrestrial fauna and Lower Palaeolithic implements in stratified contexts. But, the anticipated human fossil discoveries could only be made relatively recently. First came a partial calvaria [Sonakia Rec. GSI 113, 1984] followed by two clavicles and a 9th rib [Sankhyan, JHE 32, 1997; Cur. Sci. 88, 2005] from Hathnora, and most recently a femur and a humerus from another site, Netankheri. Recent detailed study by the author showed existence of two types of hominins in Narmada Valley.

The calvaria and the two clavicles including the rib represent two distinct archaic hominin populations now supported by the femur and the humerus. The femur, found in the lower (U1) boulder conglomerate bed in association with mega terrestrial fauna and large Acheulian handaxes, exhibits a mosaic robust morphology of H. erectus and H. neanderthalensis, also seen in the calvaria debated between H. erectus or archaic Homo sapiens or H. heidelbergensis such that both likely come from one 'large-bodied' robust hominin, H. heidelbergensis. The humerus, found between middle and upper (U2/U3) boulder conglomerate beds, comes from pre-YTA (~75 kya) strata in association with typical Mode 3 and Mode 4 implements including several unique bone tools discovered for the first time. It represents a 'short and stocky' late archaic/early modern Homo sapiens hitherto unknown in South Asia indicating continuity of the 'small-bodied' hominins, also attested by >60 kya genomic signatures.

ANEK R. SANKHYAN: Siwalik Bhawan, Ward No. 5, Near IPH, Ghumarwin, Bilaspur -174021(H.P.), India.

Paper short abstract:

A brachycranic Homo sapiens cranium from Orsang River, a tributary of the Narmada, dated to 4600 B.P. exhibits robust morphology like developed torus angularis and supramastoid crest indicating genetic continuity between late Asian Homo erectus and Asian "cromagnoid" ancestors of Orsang man.

Paper long abstract:

An isolated cranium without face was recovered in 1999 on an old fluvial deposit of the Orsang River valley, a tributary of the Narmada River in western India. The skull refers to a brachycranial Homo sapiens, direct dating (AMS radiocarbon) gave an age of 4600 years B.P. In spite of the young age, the skull is significant for understanding the links between South Asian Homo erectus and robust Homo sapiens or "like-cromagnoid" populations still few known in Continental Asia. The most interesting features observed are 1) a well-developed torus angularis in the posterior part, visible on the Early Pleistocene Eurasian species (H. georgicus, H. erectus, H. antecessor) only, then on the Asian Upper Pleistocene Homo erectus, 2) a well-developed supramastoid crest and 3) a very broad frontal sinus in the broken glabellar area (20 mm). On the other hand the greatest width is located in the lower part of the cranium (temporal). CT-scan images show no pneumatization of the mastoid process as in Homo erectus, but an internal convexity of the temporal bone corresponding to the temporal lobe and a strong ossification of the coronal suture not visible on the external face of the frontal bone. All together, these features give evidence of an important endocrine activity, and a genetic continuity between late Asian Homo erectus and ancestor of Orsang man, suggesting an Asian "cromagnoid" stadium in the hominization evolutionary process.

A. DAMBRICOURT MALASSÉ1*, L.S Chamyal2**, Rachna Raj2, D. M. Maurya2, N. Juyal 3, S. Bhandari2, R. K. Pant3 and S. Shah4: 1. UMR 7194 CNRS, Department of Prehistory, National Museum of Natural History, Institut de Paléontologie Humain, Paris, France. 2. Department of Geology, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, India. 3. Physical Research Laboratory, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad, India. 4. Centre for Diagnostic & Therapeutic Radiology Services, Vadodara, India. *Corresponding author. ** Corresponding author.

Paper short abstract:

Recent studies have highlighted the role of geomorphological processes in creating landscapes which were attractive to our hominin ancestors during the Plio-Pleistocene. They further our knowledge of the habitat niche of hominins and their routes of dispersal within Africa and beyond.

Paper long abstract:

Here I briefly review palaeoenvironmental evidence from sites repeatedly used by hominins in eastern and southern Africa, such as Sterkfontein (Cradle of Humankind, Gauteng, South Africa). Common 'mosaic' habitat reconstructions involve the presence of a lake or river setting, with a combination of forest or woodland with savannah grasslands in close spatial proximity. The Tectonic Landscape Model (Bailey et al. 2011 & Reynolds, et al., 2011) is a new hominin habitat model which explains why certain sites appeared to have been repeatedly used by our ancestors for over millions of years. Specific geomorphological processes, such as tectonic faulting, have created complex topography and thereby encouraged heterogeneous habitats to form, and sustained such features through time. The Plio-Pleistocene is characterised by several key climatic transitions that could have presented unique challenges for hominins and other fauna. Therefore, a more complete appreciation of how geomorphological processes affecting landscapes, surface water and vegetation is critical to the characterisation of hominin niches and also for adaptive strategies employed by our ancestors to past climatic changes. Interestingly, the use of complex topography used by hominins may explain the aspects of their postcranial anatomy, diets and possible dispersal routes followed by them.

Bailey, G.N.; Reynolds, S.C. and King G. C. P. (2011). Tectonic geomorphology and hominin landscapes: models, methods and hypotheses. Journal of Human Evolution. 60(3):257-280.

Reynolds, S.C.; Bailey, G. and King G. C. P. (2011). Landscapes and their relation to hominin habitats: case studies from Australopithecus sites in eastern and southern Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 60(3):281-298.

SALLY C. REYNOLDS: Institute for Human Evolution, University of the Witwatersrand (South Africa) and School of Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University (United Kingdom). Email<<reynolds@ipgp.fr>

Paper short abstract:

All over the world and in all time periods, animals on islands have adapted to their environment. In most cases, this meant a significant change in body size. Whether hominins conform to this 'island rule' will be assessed through comparisons with continental hominins and insular mammals.

Paper long abstract:

Evolution on islands differs fundamentally from evolution on the mainland. Unbalanced endemic island faunas lack mammalian predators. Due to a different (or even absence of) predation pressure, evolution can take a course not normally taken on the mainland, resulting in tiny elephants, small hippos and artiodactyls with the strangest head ornaments.

This presentation describes possible mechanisms driving island evolution and how these influenced insular mammal morphology. There are several key adaptations, which are seen in most island dwarfs. Most importantly, there is a reduction in size. This reduction is most pronounced in the limbs, with additional adaptations for 'low-gear locomotion', which minimises energy expenditure during locomotion. Additionally, reversals to an ancestral state take place for specific features, which is caused by a functional change for those features associated with the decrease in size.

An assessment of the morphology of Homo floresiensis is made in with respect to these typical adaptations to determine whether island dwarfing from H. erectus offers a plausible explanation for H. floresiensis or whether it is more likely that H. floresiensis descended from an australopith-like hominin. The brain of H. floresiensis is relatively small to lower its energy requirements. Its legs are relatively short and robust and its pelvis relatively broad as an adaptation to 'low-gear locomotion'. Furthermore, H. floresiensis displays archaic wrist bone morphology. The parallelisms with other island animals are so striking that the most parsimonious solution seems that H. floresiensis evolved from H. erectus in an island environment.

Dr Anneke H. van Heteren Netherlands Centre for Biodiversity Naturalis Research Associate

Paper short abstract:

Denisova Cave, in the Altai Mountains of Russia, has produced an archaic human genome representing a population previously unknown to science. Here I discuss its relationship to other human populations and what its genes tell us about its biology.

Paper long abstract:

The recovery of whole genome evidence has begun to provide new evidence about the biology and dynamics of ancient populations. Denisova Cave, in the Altai Mountains of Russia, has produced several skeletal fragments with ancient DNA evidence, including one complete genome at high coverage. This individual represents a population previously unknown to science. Dating to roughly 50,000 years ago, the genome has approximately the same genetic difference from contemporary Africans as did Neandertals, but was quite distinct from them also. Here, I discuss the functional insights that have come from the Denisova genome, including details about the immune system, pigmentation, and genes involved in brain development. We can demonstrate that the Denisovans contributed some genes of important phenotypic effect to later populations, including genes related to immunity, while other genes exhibit distinctive changes in Denisovans that are not shared in living human samples. Today, people in island Southeast Asia including New Guinea, the Philippines, and Aboriginal Australians trace up to five percent of their ancestry to the ancient Denisovan population. I discuss the dynamics of this population, including its relationship with Neandertals and the subsequent population movements and interactions in East and Southeast Asia that may explain the present distribution of Denisovan ancestry.

DR. JOHN HAWKS: Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 5240 Social Science Building, 1180 Observatory Drive, Madison, WI 53706-1393 USA. Emailjhawks@wisc.edu.

Paper short abstract:

Brain imaging used recently to view activated brain parts of the 'expert' and 'naïve' stone knappers for understanding brain development in Oldowan and Acheulean contexts remains inconclusive without recourse to raw materials, ecology, diet, gender, body form, manual dexterity, etc. of the hominins.

Paper long abstract:

In recent years some scholars like Stout et al., 2011 and Faisal et al., 2010 have used fMRI, PET, MRI scanning techniques in experiments on 'naïve' and 'expert' knappers and equated the observed differences in activation of the brain parts with brain developments in Oldowan and Acheulean hominins. Their conclusions emerged at three level: (1) The Oldowan technology impacted primary motor and somatosensory cortices, superior parietal lobule, cerebellum and fusiform gyrus of right inferior temporal lobe of brain. (2) the mode I resulted bilateral activation in primary somatosensory and motor cortex and visual processing area as well as inferior parietal lobule. (3) the 'naïve' knappers revealed activation on ventral, lateral and dorsal visual areas, whereas the 'experts' knappers showed on the broadmann area 19.

However, laboratory experiments on modern humans may not be n exact proxy for the Oldowan or Acheulean hominins over million years ago. They were constrained by a multitude of selective pressures of predation, ecological setting, the availability of diet owing to seasonality, availability of the stone tool raw material- its quality, hardness and softness, and besides hominin's own morphological idiosyncrasy- the body form, sexual dimorphism, manual dexterity, i.e., the size of the thumb and its opposability for holding the objects, the stone hammer, etc. Other than H.habilis and H. erectus, we need to evaluate such results from bio-cultural aspects of the tiny Homo floresiensis hobbit with exceptional complexity of stone tool making, the large robust Paranthropus robustus and the small Australopithecus afarensis having body, diet and culture contrasts. In fact, brain activation and evolution is very complex phenomenon.

Faisal, A., Stout, D., Appel, J. and Bradley, B. (2010). The Manipulative Complexity of Lower Paleolithic Stone Toolmaking. PLoS ONE 5(11): e13718. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013718

Stout, D. (2011) Stone tool making and the evolution of human culture and cognition. Philos. Trans. R Soc. London, B, 366, 1050-1059.

Stout, D., Richard Passingham, R., Christopher Frith, C. Jan Apel, J. and Thierry Chaminade, T. (2011). Technology, expertise and social cognition in human evolution. European Journal of Neuroscience, pp. 1-11, doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07619.x

Ms.Tanusree Pandit (tanusree2@gmail.com) & Dr. Anek R. Sankhyan (arsankhyan@gmail.com) ex-Anthropologist, Anthropological Survey of India, 27, J. L. Nehru Road, Kolkata-700016, India & President Palaeo Research Society, Ghumarwin (H.P.)-174021, India.

Paper short abstract:

Study of mottled carbonate palaeosols at Dhansi and Ganera indicate prolonged marshes, yield fewer artifacts and fauna. But abundant calcretes in Surajkund Fm indicate warm and humid seasonal moisture deficits, rich fauna and artifacts revealing metrical continuity from 'middle' to 'late' Acheulian.

Paper long abstract:

Based on field data the present paper describes archaeological and geo-environmental processes at work in the alluvial deposits of Hoshangabad and Sehore area in central Narmada valley where we recognized three distinct stratigraphic formations- the Dhansi (Lower Pleistocene), Surajkund (Middle Pleistocene) and Baneta (Upper Pleistocene). These alluvial strata have yielded evidences of vertebrate fossils and Palaeolithic industries with palaeoenvironmental signatures. The geological observations indicate that the mottled palaeosols at Dhansi and Ganera represent carbonate precipitations in prolonged standing water conditions. Abundance of calcretes in Surajkund Fm owing to cementation of calcium carbonate represents a prominent feature in climatic zones where seasonal moisture deficit occurs and allows accumulations of calcium carbonate. The Surajkund Fm is the major contributor to the Lower Palaeolithic industry in the study area and its metrical analyses revealed general continuity of the Acheulian industry from 'middle' to 'late' types.

Besides archaeological data, the Surajkund Fm yielded numerous mammalian fossils; the second author and his associates excavated many in situ crania and mandibles of Equus, Elephas, Bos, Bubalus, Hexaprotodon, Stegodon and Rhinoceros. The bio-stratigraphy indicates Middle Pleistocene age and points to warm and humid conditions with seasonal pools. The Dhansi Fm at Bikori Budhni section yielded several flakes; the second author excavated a few at Nagwada as well. As the Dhansi/ Surajkund palaeomag contact is correlated with the Brunhes-Matuyama boundary the artifacts are expected to be of the Lower Pleistocene, but rolled down is possible as they are indistinguishable from those of the overlying Surajkund Fm.

1. SATYA DEV and 2. A.R. SANKHYAN: 1. Aarhus University, Denmark; 2. Anthropological Survey of India.

Paper short abstract:

The ancient people of Xiaohe Cemetery in Tarim Basin used the heavenly stems and earthly branches to record the events and the spirit of HuangDiNeiJing to express their hope of reproduction and life, which showed they had the same ancestors as the ancient Chinese.

Paper long abstract:

Lots of relics were unearthed in Xiaohe with figures 7 and 12+1, which were symbols of + and ♀ meaning resurrection and hope of life.

The bottomless coffins were womb-like with bunches of small branches bond on their top to represent his/her children. Wooden rods like trunks and leaves before coffins signified penises and vulvas, showed life producing process.

The oracle of figure 7 was +, figure to describe life cycles in HuangDiNeiJing. It was originated from Big Dipper consisting of 7 bright stars. The seventh in earthly stems, called noon (Wu), meant sexual intercourse. The figure 12+1 represented the first stem, called son (Zi), whose oracle was ♀ in which a fruit on crucifix stood for result of Wu, offspring of sexual activities.

In Xiaohe, the female were decorated with bird feathers to show they belonged to bird-tribe, and the male were decorated with earrings and snakes of 7 heads, which showed people in Xiaohe married with snake-tribe in Sichuan Basin where lots of relics, such as bronze kneeling statues with a 7-head snake and female apparels engraved on some rituals same as apparels of steeple-hats and pointed-valenkis in Xiaohe, were unearthed.

In Maiping ruins, Sichuan, a tribe head in bottomless coffin was with white features decorated 7-earrings on ears. Now there are folk customs erecting small branches to pledge for offspring and wearing steeple dresses in funerals.

Historic documents recorded that the fief of Emperor Huang's grandson, An, located in the west, where his offspring founded Parthian.

Paper short abstract:

Fluvial and archaeological potentials of Middle Tejo River terraces of Portugal are explored. It is concluded that the T4 with the earliest human occupations in Portugal of Lower/Middle Palaeolithic were deposited in temperate climate; the T6 artifacts likely belong to the later Upper Pleistocene.

Paper long abstract:

Alto Ribatejo is a region of central Portugal that extends along the Middle Portuguese Tejo River. Six river terraces have been recognised for the Tejo River in the Portuguese sector. The aim of the present research is to record the fluvial potential of the river at the lower terraces (T6/alluvial plain) and the middle terrace (T4), as well as to discover the archaeological potential in these sites. The present study brings very interesting results. Five main stratigraphical units were identified in the lower terraces; the second unit, which comprises boulders, cobbles, pebbles and some lithic artifacts, is identified as terrace T6. This terrace may belong to a late phase of the Upper Pleistocene. Three main stratigraphical units have been identified in T4. T4 is extremely significant, because it contains the earliest records of human occupation, which are dated to OIS 7 - 9. The sedimentological analysis evidenced that T4 was deposited during temperate climatic conditions. On the basis of spatial analysis and geological context of the archaeological artifacts, they are divided into three categories. The first category groups the Lower Palaeolithic artifacts from the T4 terrace. The second category of artifacts recorded from the T6 at Outeiro du Pedro, thought to belong to the Upper Pleistocene. The third category is constituted of artifacts which were recorded as surface finds at various localities. Typologically and morphologically, they are very similar to artifacts from the Middle/Lower Palaeolithic and the Bronze Age.

DEV, S.:Department of Archaeology, Aarhus University, Denmark.

Paper short abstract:

In tracing the evolution of hominin cognition, beads and pendants are among the most important material evidence in archaeology. They provide excellent information about the technology required making them, they demonstrate self-awareness and identity, and they are purely symbolic entities.

Paper long abstract:

Among all the evidence archaeology is capable of providing about the cognitive evolution of hominins, beads and pendants are perhaps the most instructive. Other reportedly symbolic remains can in many cases be challenged, but perforated objects that are too small or too fragile to have served as pulling handles or similar can be safely described as beads. Several hundred such specimens have been excavated from Lower Palaeolithic strata in Libya, Israel, Austria, France and England. In many cases specific microwear has been detected on them that indicates that they were worn threaded onto string for prolonged periods of time. Their study and replicative experimentation have also provided empirical information about their technology, how they were made. But their most important scientific testimony is what they can tell us about the cognition of their makers and wearers. Beads and pendants demand self-awareness and a theory of mind in their users, as well as complex meanings of individual status, and research has shown that concepts of perfection were clearly involved in their production of use. The same applies to the oldest currently known rock art, located in India, which suggests that Lower Palaeolithic humans had developed relatively sophisticated cultural practices and advanced cognition several hundred millennia ago. This finding, confirmed by several others, shows that the hitherto dominant model of cultural evolution during the second half of the Pleistocene must be false, and that essentially modern human behaviour did not appear in the last third of the Late Pleistocene, but much earlier, during the Middle Pleistocene period.

ROBERT BEDNARIK, IFRAO, AUSTRALIA

Paper short abstract:

Present study reports a discovery of two new Pleistocene archaeological sites at Galudih in east Singbhum and critically analyses the archaeological and geomorphological findings to reconstruct the cultural succession in human evolution in eastern part of India.

Paper long abstract:

This article is based on surface and partly on excavated findings discovered at Galudih - Mahulia (GLD: site 1) and Chandrarekha (CRH: site 2) in Jharkhand State of India in very rich stratigraphic sections studied. This stratigraphic succession reveals a true picture about the relationship between geomorphology & typo-technology of artifacts, and the order of succession shows climatic fluctuations during Middle to Late Pleistocene.

The two sites are located in a natural geographical setting and have yielded different types of tools made on different rock raw material, mainly quartzite pebbles, but quartz, mica, quartzite and basalt as well. We can note a change in the nature and pattern of the soil with stratigraphic variations due to the erosional activities of the Subarnarekha River.. Primary laterite was present on the hill tops and due to erosion; it is converted into secondary laterite. A succession of dry and wet periods during the Pleistocene can be recognized from the sequence of deposits. Step-like formations are observed throughout and stratigraphy shows layers of calcified bed, kankar, hard sandy soil and lateritic soil from bottom to top. The findings prove that there was continuity in tool industry from chopper-biface to flake to flake-blade industry, followed by a rich microlithic industry. The evolving tool types and different techniques used by the Pleistocene ancestors during the prehistory indicates continuous intellectual development and human evolution in this part of eastern India.

RATNA BHATTACHARYA: Associate Professor, Department of Anthropology, Bangabasi College, Kolkata -700009, India.

Paper short abstract:

Reported here is a novel genetic mutation in BRCA1 gene among Hindu Bengali patients of West Bengal. The finding is significant for developing population database useful in detection and early prognosis of breast cancer, one of the leading causes of women's death all over the world including India.

Paper long abstract:

Breast cancer is one of the leading causes of women's death all over the world including India. It accounts for 23% of all cancers among women, and is the second most common cancer overall when both sexes are considered together. Though low in prevalence, a high geographical variation is seen in germline mutations of BRCA1 gene, epidemiological studies indicate that BRCA1 mutation carriers have a lifetime risk of breast cancer that is on the order of 60 - 80%. There have been only a few reports from Asia, and none from West Bengal. Interestingly, there is also a significant difference in the incidence of breast cancer between urban and rural population of India and it also varies among various religious groups. These differences in breast cancer incidence in India have been mainly attributed to socio-cultural and environmental factors but no information is available on genetic factors. A total of 110 patients and 122 controls (without any family history of breast cancer) have been analysed for BRCA1 econ 13 by PCR amplification and then by direct sequencing. A novel (Pro1430Ser) variant was identified among 18 patients and 2 controls. Identification of the novel mutation may help in developing a database for a given population, which will be useful in detection and early prognosis of the disease.

ABHISHIKTA GHOSH ROY1, R. ROY2, B. N. SARKAR1 and A. R. BANDOPADHYAY3

1Anthropological Survey of India, Res: 137C, K.P. Mukherjee Road, CMC Housing, Flat - B/12, Kolkata-700008; 2Cancer Centre Welfare Home and Research Institute; 3Department of Anthropology, Calcutta University, India