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Paper short abstract:

Rwanda has achieved remarkable development since the end of the Civil War and the gruesome Genocide. Ethnic conflicts and civil wars were the major crises that Rwanda had to endure. The paper is on the need to leverage capabilities and commitments from crises to enhance participatory and accountable governance for fostering social cohesion and nurturing inclusive human development in Rwanda.

Paper long abstract:

Rwanda, a country in Central Africa, has achieved remarkable socio-economic development and progress since the end of the Civil War and the gruesome Genocide. When Rwanda became an independent nation in 1962, the first three decades were marred by unrest, massacres, civil wars, and dictatorship. Ethnic conflicts and civil wars were the major crises that Rwanda had to endure. The civil war that occurred between October 1990 and July 1994, followed by the Rwandan Genocide, not only destroyed the social and moral fabric of Rwanda but also left its economy in tatters. The Genocide of 1994 and its aftermath completely changed the course of life and development in Rwanda. The Rwandan experience shows that the crises facilitated the nation and its people's moulding and developing their capabilities to the fore and simultaneously strengthening them through their social, political, and moral commitments. Today, Rwanda is one of the world's most successful and fastest-growing economies (Bull and Vanek, 2024). Rwanda’s recovery from the 1994 Genocide and its rapid economic growth, about 8 percent on average over the last 15 years, inspires developing countries worldwide (UNDP, 2021). According to the World Bank, Rwanda’s economy grew by 9.2 percent in the first quarter of 2023, following 8.2 per cent growth in 2022 (World Bank, 2023). Between 1990 and 2017, Rwanda’s Human Development Index (HDI) doubled from 0.250 to 0.524; in 2021, it stood at 0.534 (UNDP, 2021). While Rwanda is still positioned in the Low Human Development category, between 1995 and 2021, its HDI value tremendously changed from 0.286 to 0.534 (UNDP – HDI,2021). Rwanda’s GNI per capita changed about 19.51 percent between 1995 and 2021.

Rwanda is also a global leader in health care in the East African region in alternative care reforms (Karim et al.,2021). Rwanda has made notable achievements in reducing maternal mortality rates by 42 percent, lowering them from 487 to 203 per 100,000 live births, and the country has successfully brought down under-five mortality rates to 50 percent from 152 deaths per 1,000 live births to 76 (Binagwaho and Kubwimana, 2023). Poverty rates have also substantially come down as Multidimensional Poverty in Rwanda has declined from 0.461 in 2005 to 0.266 in 2017 to 0.231 in 2021.

Rehabilitation and development processes in Rwanda were built on the foundation of sound political and institutional structures and mechanisms to foster resilience and transformation. Over the years, especially post-1994, the government of Rwanda has exhibited a strong commitment in reducing poverty by implementing pro-poor policies and economic reforms to raise the income and productivity of the poor, which have resulted in a tremendous decline in poverty and inequality. Rwanda is also a business and investment-friendly country. The effective, pragmatic, and zero tolerance on corruption have provided a conducive platform for public policy success and a conducive investment ecosystem to attract local and foreign investments (Ggeombe and Newfarmer, 2018). In the case of Gender Development Index, the 2021 female HDI value for Rwanda is 0.521 in contrast with 0.574 for males, resulting in a GDI value of 0.954. Today, Rwanda has 61 percent women Parliamentarians. In 2003, the Rwandan government put forward a bold gender equality initiative and ensured 30 percent quota in all the decision-making bodies. A Ministry of Gender was also set up in Rwanda, the first of its kind in Africa (Wallace et al., 2008). Rwanda has also introduced an Inheritance law favouring women. During the genocide, 10,00,000 lives were lost, and 250,000 women were subjected to sexual violence. After the Genocide, 70 per cent of those who survived were women. The crisis resulting from the Genocide forced the country to make use of the leadership and administrative capabilities of Rwandan women. The government that came into power was forced to look into policies that can accommodate women in powerful positions.

While the Democracy Index over the years classified Rwanda as an “authoritarian regime”, it is surprising to note that this country became a haven for effective home-grown solutions. Rwanda’s transformation journey from obscurity to development was also pioneered by “locally engineered policy innovations” known as home-grown solutions. Home-grown solutions have played an instrumental role in fostering the Rwandans' capabilities and cementing the commitments towards the nation as a whole in various facets. Peacebuilding processes and initiatives in Rwanda were a fruitful result of home-grown solutions in the world. No other country in the world has effectively made use of the power of home-grown solutions other than Rwanda, not only in post-conflict resolutions and reconstructions but also in strengthening political, social, and economic transformations. In the last 20 years, the Rwandan government has come up with several home-grown solutions built on the values and systems of Rwandan culture. The spirit of de-ethnicization (“I am Rwandan, not Hutu, Tutsi or Twa”) has also strengthened capabilities and commitments.

The introductory part of the paper offers a socio-economic and political profile of Rwanda before the 1994 Genocide and in the post- Genocide. The first part of the paper looks into the social, economic, and political reforms undertaken in Rwanda post-1994. It critically examines how the crises resulting from the Genocide led to a trajectory of capability and commitment framework in formulating and implementing these reforms. The second part looks into the role of political and social empowerment of Rwandan women in the aftermath of the Genocide and critically examines the Rwandan government's commitment to empowering women through pro-women policies and schemes. The third part of the paper looks into the role of locally-engineered home-grown solutions and de-ethnicization in Rwanda, their role in strengthening and developing the capabilities of the citizens and the nation, and how they translate into political, social, and moral commitments. It is followed by a detailed discussion and conclusion on the need to leverage capabilities and commitments to enhance decentralization and participatory and accountable governance for fostering social cohesion and nurturing inclusive human development in Rwanda. The methodology is based on empirical evidences and desk research.

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Paper short abstract:

The central idea of development is freedom of opportunity, contrasting with the traditional view on economic growth. Despite economic progress, Sen’s capability approach remains crucial for marginalized groups, emphasizing well-being and agency. Our paper analyzes regional imbalances, particularly in India’s Aspirational Districts Program, using a multidimensional approach.

Paper long abstract:

The process of development requires an expanding spectrum of freedom for people to access. This concept of development contrasts with the traditional viewpoint, which solely emphasizes economic growth as the parameter of development. While the significance of economic growth cannot be ignored, it is equally vital for individuals within society as a means to enhance various ends of life. Freedom emerges as the central idea of development, denoting freedom from poverty and the dearth of opportunities in accessing healthcare, education, and other essential services.

It is also evident that despite economic growth, there are individuals at the bottom of the economic growth who are denied participation in its benefits. Here, the role of agencies becomes prominent in enabling marginalized individuals to access opportunities and exercise their freedoms. Sometimes, the lack of economic freedom can impact other ends of life, including health, education, and democratic participation. Similarly, the absence of access to healthcare can adversely affect economic opportunities, livelihoods, and education. Therefore, in cases of freedom violation, the resulting impact directly affects developmental opportunities. This underscores the significance of Sen's capability approach.

The capability approach, also known as the capability framework, revolves around two themes: well-being and agency. Well-being pertains to how effectively one can function as a human being. Functioning encompasses both means and ends—for example, the quality of education an individual receives opportunities for better employment and the ability to advocate for their rights. Education thus serves as a means for employment, as well as for health and democratic participation. Similarly, good health can facilitate quality education. However, these means and ends may remain unattainable if individuals lack the freedom to exercise agency in shaping their future lives. A poorly shaped agency can adversely impact people's freedom to access opportunities. For instance, an area with a dysfunctional healthcare facility can impede access to good health. Not only governmental agencies, but also biased community-based organizations, can suppress the voices of the marginalized. This emphasizes the continued importance of the capability approach, especially in India, where multidimensional diversity exists in terms of geography, demography, and politics. Different regions of India experience distinct realities of development and opportunities.

The proposed paper aims to explore and analyze regional development imbalances prevailing in Indian states using the Multi-Dimensional Poverty Index and National Family Health Survey through the capability approach. The data analysis will encompass both quantitative and qualitative aspects to complement each other.

Regional development has primarily focused on the metropolitan system, aligning with the theory of dependency. The pinnacle of development is deemed attained when its benefits are enjoyed by citizens across the state, irrespective of geographical and demographic boundaries, enabling people to access different agencies freely. This concern is particularly relevant for the hilly regions of the country.

In the pursuit of making development accessible to every citizen and fostering India's overall development, the Aspirational Districts Program emerges as a groundbreaking initiative. The program encompasses 112 aspirational districts across India, representing diverse demographic and geographical locations. Its objective is to develop these districts in thematic areas such as health and nutrition, education, basic infrastructure, agriculture, water resources, financial inclusion, and skill development. These districts are among the most backward in India. The program's success relies on an effective data management system and the principles of convergence and collaboration.

To evaluate regional development balances, the Multidimensional Poverty Index will be utilized, employing the latest household microdata from the all-India National Family Health Survey (NFHS). It measures deprivation across three dimensions: health and nutrition, education, and standard of living.

The paper will conclude by examining the impact of the Aspirational Districts Program in the Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir. This district, located in the Himalayan Mountain range and near the Line of Control between India and Pakistan, holds a unique geographical position. The paper's recommendations for further improvement will be significant for policymakers and researchers interested in implementing similar programs in other regions.

References:

Sen, A. (2000). Development As Freedom. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Sen, A. (1999). Inequality reexamined. New Delhi: OXFORD University Press.

Sen, A. (1985). Well-Being, Agency and Freedom: The Dewey Lectures 1984. The Journal of Philosophy, 82, 169-221.

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Paper short abstract:

This study traces discourse in the development on human well-being from the Enlightenment era to the contemporary neoclassical period. It argues that during this period, human well-being has sometimes been at the core, while sometimes being on the margins of the discourse.

Paper long abstract:

This study traces discourse in the development on human well-being from the Enlightenment era to the contemporary neoclassical period. It argues that during this period, human well-being has sometimes been at the core, while sometimes being on the margins of the discourse. Human development became a central development concept with the emergence of the capability approach discourse of Amartya Sen and Mehbub ul Haq. However, through its carefully crafted market policies, the contemporary neoclassical regime glorifies the concept of human development in a ‘cosmetic’ way, which has prioritised market forces over human well-being. Thus, real-equitable-sustainable human development discourse, with human well-being at its core, is missing in the actions and practices, which otherwise have been historically idealised by Aristotle, Smith, Mill, and Marx and later by Sen and Haq and their followers.

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The present study investigated the accessibility of transportation for pregnant women to reach public health facilities in Himachal Pradesh, a federal state in India known for its hilly terrain. Particularly we attempted to understand how household ownership of any means of transportation (two/three/four wheelers) can affect pregnant women’s health functioning using NFHS-5 and Geo codes.

Paper long abstract:

Transportation accessibility is an important factor to reach health facility specifically for maternal mortality remains a global concern, especially in regions with challenging geography. Easily accessible transportation for access to healthcare during pregnancy is crucial for attaining SDG 3.1, 3.2 reducing maternal and child death and SDG 3.8 of universal access to health care services. Access to transportation, access to health resources, its utilisation and health capability has a very intricate and multifaceted relationship.

The present study investigated the accessibility of transportation for pregnant women to reach public health facilities in Himachal Pradesh, a federal state in India known for its hilly terrain. Particularly we attempted to understand how household ownership of any means of transportation (two/three/four wheelers) can affect pregnant women’s health functioning using NFHS-5. Secondly utilising multiple secondary data sources we tried to understand the role of public policy in attaining SDGs goals and improving the health functioning of the pregnant women.

Further, we mapped the modes of transportation utilized, including ambulances and private vehicles, to reach these facilities with the spatial-temporal distribution of public health facilities in the state of Himanchal Pradesh. This examination was crucial given the geographical challenges posed by the hilly landscape of Himachal Pradesh, which can significantly impact accessibility to health facilities and affect maternal healthcare. We used NFHS-5 data from the DHS survey website and Geo codes for health facilities were taken from the government health department, public transportation and road network from the RCTC of Himachal Pradesh to study pregnant women's access to transportation, and public health facilities, taking into account various factors such as mobility, financial constraints, distance from home to the facility, travel time, reluctance to travel alone, and different terrain measures. All the analysis were carried out using QGIS and Stata 16.

Based on the Network and buffer analysis, we found disparities in the transportation accessibility and distribution of public health facilities, with a bias towards central and densely populated areas. Many districts in Himachal Pradesh lack adequate health facility coverage and lack of public and private transportation availability, leading to poor health functioning of women. Additionally, some districts have overlapping facility coverage with availability of transportation, further excluding certain regions from access. Our analysis highlights the negative impact of availability of transportation, distance and time on pregnancy care, with farther distances and time correlating with poorer outcomes. While doing the analysis of the result we used the CA framework to highlight the role of government and public policy in attaining the SDG 3.1, 3.2 and 3.8, mainly because the public services are primarily utilized by the economically and socially disadvantaged, emphasizing the importance of equitable provision to improve healthcare access and social indicators.

Keywords: Role of Government and Public Policy, SDG-3, Health Capability, Spatial Analysis

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his paper examines chronic deprivation in the context of the U.K.’s labour market, using longitudinal data over a period of 20 years. Workers do indeed “get stuck” in poor-quality employment, and that they rotate between unemployment, inactivity, and poor quality jobs.

Paper long abstract:

The cost-of living crisis has highlighted stark social inequalities in the UK. Striking workers and union leaders have consistently complained about low pay and poor employment conditions. Future technologies, automation and AI will further impact not only the number of jobs but also employment conditions.

Yet poor-quality employment, a multidimensional concept that combines wages with other employment conditions that have a negative effect on well-being, has rarely commanded concerted attention from policy makers, who vaguely talk about “more and better” jobs without specifying what this means.

Several recent papers have used the Alkire Foster method to measure poor-quality employment from a multidimensional perspective incorporating dimensions such as income, job stability, and other working conditions (Sehnbruch et al., 2020; Havhannisyan, 2022; Stephens, 2023). However, this literature has not yet looked at chronic poor-quality employment in the same way that the literature on multidimensional poverty has looked at chronic poverty (Alkire et al., 2017).

This paper therefore uses these methodologies to examine chronic deprivation in the context of the U.K.’s labour market, using longitudinal data from Understanding Society over a period of 20 years. We assign an employment deprivation status to survey respondents based on the characteristics of the jobs they held at different points in time. In our poor-quality employment measure, low pay accounts for one third of the total score, but we also consider other aspects of the job, such as employment stability (as proxied by the type of contract and job tenure) and working conditions (among them autonomy, hours worked, and pension benefits). Our results show that workers do indeed “get stuck” in poor-quality employment, and that they rotate between unemployment, inactivity, and poor-quality jobs .

This situation is not only detrimental for the workers but also poses challenges for policymakers. Workers in deprived employment are more likely to rely on benefits. In addition, given the connection between employment deprivation and health outcomes, they might also require more support from health services such as the NHS. In all, this increases the financial burden on the state while hindering workers’ ability to develop their skills and capabilities.

Using sequencing analysis, this paper analyses employment trajectories over time as well as the characteristics of workers and other socio-economic information that contribute to these results.

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Paper short abstract:

The paper analyzes social vulnerability and its relationship with organizational and institutional structures of basic sanitation in Brazilian municipalities in 2010 and recent developments. We integrate data from 3 sources. Results show a strong relationship between social vulnerability and the allocation of organizational, institutional, and financial resources on sanitation at the local level.

Paper long abstract:

This paper is part of the panel proposal SDGs: Employing Capability Approach to Creating Social and Economic Impact in Development and Policy submitted by Brian Ikejiaku

Research Context

Despite the UN Declaration explicitly stating that health and well-being are basic human rights, health status around the world remains noticeably unequal. While current life expectancy in developed countries is as high as 75 to 80 years, a child born today in Sub Saharan Africa will not live more than 50 to 55 years. Lack of food, clothing, housing, medical care, and necessary social services to ensure adequate standard of living and security are widespread signs of persistent health disparities at national and global levels. Within this context, it is not surprising that the United Nations has put forth agendas such as the 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in addition to programs to measure progress towards their various targets. Health is a basic human right that is essential for the fulfilment of capabilities such as life and bodily health. SDG-6 Clean Water and Sanitation aims to improve access to water supply, sanitation, and hygiene, which are understood as basic capabilities or “elementary things,” as they are necessary for survival and to avoid deprivation. However, they are not limited only to “elementary things,” as they enable individuals to aspire, claim, and achieve more complex doings and beings as well as freedoms.

Methodology

This paper analyzes social vulnerability and its relationship with organizational and institutional structures of basic sanitation in Brazilian municipalities in 2010 (last available census data) and recent developments. The study integrates data from: 1) 2000/2010 Social Vulnerability Index (IVS); 2) 2011 Municipal Basic Information Survey (MUNIC); and 3) 2009 Finance of Brazil (FINBRA).

Analysis & Conclusions

Between 2000-2010, social vulnerability dropped 26.9%, and municipalities with high vulnerability plummeted from 45.7% to 14.4%. Results show a strong relationship between social vulnerability and the allocation of organizational, institutional, and financial resources on sanitation at the local level. Municipalities with very low vulnerability have committed significantly more resources than those municipalities with very high vulnerability. Findings are put into perspective considering more recent data on sanitation, which illuminate the setbacks and threats for Brazil to meet the SDGs targets by 2030. However, policies addressing SDG 6 could change the picture dramatically creating social and economic impact in development and people´s life, if informed by the capability approach. Three conceptual bases are highlighted: 1) Although SDG 6 has several goals and targets, the capability approach stresses that ends are not just metrics, but the freedom individuals must enjoy beings and doings they value regarding their health. Moreover, means deserve attention as the process matters perhaps more than the outcome, and freedoms and well-being are developed along the process. 2) Although SDG 6 will affect an individual’s life and body health, its real impact will be on collective well-being and society at large. The capability approach is “people centered,” looking not only at the isolated individual per se, but also to the individual’s relations and role as part of social networks and the broader community. 3) SDG 6 can only be achieved through major government engagement. Although the capability approach puts individual agency at the center, it acknowledges the importance of organizations (e.g., governments, international organizations, market) and institutions (e.g., rules, norms, policies). Additionally, conversion factors – both social and environmental – highlight the importance of translating and/or using resources for functionings. The capability approach serves as an enlightening conceptual lens, while Sustainable Development Goal SDG-6 Clean Water and Sanitation works as an important guideline on how poor sanitation can affect people’s functioning with implications on health and wellbeing. Particularly in extreme situations, the most vulnerable and poor populations experience the most severe impacts, challenging their paths to more meaningful, free, and fulfilled lives. The Covid 19 pandemic is a clear example.