Paper short abstract:

Coca growers in Bolivia need to negotiate constantly the legal and illegal aspects of the coca leaf, and engage in unofficial economies and politics. I argue that by doing so, they create their own morality, which is based on their idea of citizenship.

Paper long abstract:

Coca growers in Bolivia occupy a particular position within the national landscape, as they embody the contrast of legality and illegality inherent to the coca leaf. In addition, the coca leaf is often associated with contrasting notions such as indigeneity, national identity, and drug trafficking. I suggest that coca growers negotiate these contrasting associations when engaging in illegal economies and politics, and thereby create their own morality. This in turn is closely related to their idea of citizenship and is based on their sense of belonging to the nation-state: in their perspective, by virtue of being citizens, they have the right to earn a good amount of money. The only way to achieve this aim is thought to be by "cheating": doing businesses which could be characterised as lying between the illegal and unofficial, such as selling coca in unofficial places, engaging in clientelism and corruption - the latter two both conceptualised as an inherent part of politics. These activities are not perceived to be illegitimate, but to a certain extent rather a citizenship right. In order to participate in these activities, however, it is necessary to acquire a specific knowledge of the social context and to develop the ability to engage in it, which both contribute to a person's status. A person needs to know the hidden rules of the game, and only as such is perceived to be effective when engaging in politics and illegal economies. "Cheating" and moralising the illegal, therefore challenges the liberal understanding of citizenship.