Paper long abstract

This study examines how speakers choose between the expressions oite aru (“it has been placed”) and okarete iru (“it is placed”) when describing resultative states created by human placement—for example, a book on a desk. While these constructions are typically introduced in elementary Japanese grammar, previous studies such as Teramura (1984) and Kudo (1991) have explained the contrast between shite aru and sarete iru primarily in terms of intentionality and the persistence of results. The present study argues, however, that usage is shaped not only by intentionality but also by spatial properties and the speaker’s cognitive stance.

The analysis draws on data from a video based elicited speech experiment (Soejima 2024). Twenty Japanese university students were shown pre change and post change still images for ten scenes and asked to showing the resulting states; for half of them, short video clips depicting the change process were additionally presented to manipulate perceived intentionality. From the resulting utterances, 191 tokens involving the verb oku (“to place”) were extracted and coded for syntactic type (oite aru vs. okarete iru). These tokens were then analyzed in relation to intentionality, spatial orderliness, publicness, object characteristics (decorative vs. personal items), and speaker certainty. The analytical categories were defined after data collection on the basis of scene characteristics and utterance content, and all tokens were classified consistently according to these explicit criteria.

The analysis revealed that okarete iru was used in approximately 90% of utterances involving high intentionality, typically in organized or staged spaces. In contrast, oite aru appeared in approximately 30% of descriptions involving everyday living spaces and was used flexibly in contexts involving awareness, subjective observation, or ambiguous objects, often reflecting a more situated speaker perspective. These findings suggest that spatial and cognitive factors significantly influence syntactic selection, extending beyond traditional notions of intentionality.

The study offers insights for Japanese language education, particularly for learners with limited opportunities to use Japanese in everyday life, such as those in Europe, by supporting understanding of context-appropriate descriptions of resultative states. The findings also encourage teachers to recognize learner differences and develop grammar instruction that is more flexible and inclusive.

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References

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