Paper short abstract:

The COVID-19 crisis in Japan showed that beyond archetypal representations of “government of experts” or “experts instrumentalized by the government”, the relation between experts and politicians was one of cooperation and tension marked by a lack of transparency and a division of responsibilities.

Paper long abstract:

The outbreak of COVID-19 in Japan – the first country to officially report a case outside China – was an opportunity to revive the debate on the relationship between policymakers and scientific experts. The latter, selected and convened in a committee by the government, played a very important role in defining policy responses to coronavirus and in risk communication to the Japanese public (Yonemura 2020, Onai & Shirabe 2020, Kanō et al. 2021). Criticism then fluctuated between the denunciation of a so-called “government of experts” lacking democratic legitimacy (scientification of politics) and that of “experts at the mercy of the government” (goyō gakusha) whose scientific legitimacy had been manipulated (politicization of science) (Pielke 2007, Turner 2013).

In order to go beyond these two archetypal representations, this paper analyses in detail the ways in which experts and their opinions were integrated into the decision-making process, as well as the reactions of the actors involved in the Japanese political and media ecosystem during the COVID-19 pandemic. To do so, this study draws on the literature on knowledge brokers (e.g. Gluckmann et al. 2021) – intermediary actors between science and politics – and on official documents (reports, legal texts, etc.), press articles and testimonies of experts and political actors.

This study shows that the relationship between experts and policy-makers was built in a trial and error manner, with readjustments according to the balance of power, the perception of their respective roles, as well as the ambivalent and paradoxical reactions of the media, the public and some external specialists. In this context of uncertainty and high “social request for expertise” (Robert 2008), although political actors have relied on experts as an essential source of legitimacy for their decisions, the latter have not hesitated to express their disagreements with the government, as well as to demand a clearer division of responsibilities and more transparency, in order to create a decision-making process that would be both more attentive to scientific research and more democratic.

Paper short abstract:

Religion-related convictions represent a common reason for vaccine hesitancy. Interviews with 32 women affiliated with 3 Japanese new religious organisations reveal no associations between religious belonging and vaccine hesitancy, derived instead from the ‘good mother’ ideology.

Paper long abstract:

Among the reasons underlying vaccine hesitancy, religion-related convictions probably represent the commonest. This paper focuses on Japan, a country that, in comparative terms, might be referred to as very secular in that a large majority of Japanese do not identify themselves as members of one particular religious group or as professing a particular faith. Against this backdrop, this qualitative investigation looks at a small population of 32 women affiliated with three Japanese new religious organisations (Shinnyoen, Sōka Gakkai, and GLA) along with 8 female Catholic believers belonging to the Roman Catholic Church of Japan. Preliminary results show that a media-driven sense of urgency and pressure on any religious community and organisation in Japan to respond promptly by implementing safety measures triggered a social mobilisation campaign among religious affiliates to affirm the commitment to comply with government policies and directives, also aligning with the national goal toward vaccination. In this context, local religious influencers have been involved through announcements in their temples, churches and social networks about immunisation sessions and sites, also mentioning immunisation significance during collective religious events. On the other hand, vaccination hesitancy prevails among pregnant women and mothers of young children, who feel pressure on their motherhood and childcaring roles tied to hegemonic ideals of the ‘good mother’ as one who is natural and holistic, thus protecting herself and her child from toxins and unnatural chemicals in the form of vaccines. In this case, religious organisations support such construct and prioritise mothers’ hesitancy toward vaccination. In conclusion, this study found no associations between vaccine hesitancy and religious belonging. Social mobilisation driven by a need to build a trustful public image directs new religious organisations to promote vaccination behaviours and comply with government policies and directives. On the other hand, ideologies of motherhood seem to relate to vaccine refusal, which the religious organisations also support, thus showing that beliefs and values in such a social construct, rather than religious faith, impact women’s safety and health behaviours for themselves and their children.

Paper short abstract:

This research paper investigates how conspiracy theories, spirituality, and anti-vaccination activism were intertwined in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan through presenting an exploratory analysis focusing on activities of the anti-immunisation organisation YamatoQ-kai.

Paper long abstract:

This research paper investigates how conspiracy theories, spirituality, and anti-vaccination activism were intertwined in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan. This exploratory analysis focuses on activities of YamatoQ-kai (henceforth YamatoQ), which originated in a group of conspiracy theory influencers including, Ichibei Okamoto, later transformed into a civil society organization (general incorporated association). YamatoQ's primary activities included the dissemination of anti-immunisation agenda through appropriation of US-born QAnon’s conspiracy rhetoric which was introduced to Japan in 2020. Empirically, although the rise of QAnon in Japan and its adherents’ engagement in pro-Trump, anti-science and anti-vaccination protests have been noted, the more recent and institutionalised branches, such as YamatoQ, remain unexplored. Hence, the presented paper strengthens scholarly explorations of Japanese offshoots of QAnon and its contribution to promoting anti-science attitudes in society.

Utilising selected concepts from Social Movement Theory (framing and advocacy), and the concept of “conspirituality (Ward and Voas 2011) and “conspiracy theory entrepreneurship” (Harambam 2020) we analyse the following set of issues. First, we discuss how YamatoQ’s anti-vaccination messages were framed for broader consumption by Japanese audiences, including how they were “domesticated” through introducing elements from Japanese spirituality and culture. Second, we explain what tactics were utilised to disseminate anti-vaccination narratives rooted in conspiracy theories, and how they were deployed. Finally, we assess how far wider societal and political spheres in Japan were impacted by YamatoQ’s activism. Here, we will assess the arrests and subsequent indictments of members of YamatoQ from the point of view of the state’s responses to conspiracy theories-related activism and potential impact of judicial proceedings on the future operations of YamatoQ.

In sum, by applying content analysis to online posts on the organization’s homepage and journalistic reports on the organization, we illuminate underlying implications of the conspiracy theorists’ activism and demonstrate how it has adopted QAnon’s claims while taking a Japanized form to establish itself as a premier anti-vaccine organization in the country.