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Paper short abstract:

It is well-known that Japan's 21 Demands to China were criticized all over the world. But the reasons of criticism have been neglected in previous studies. An analysis of why Japanese newspapers and magazines criticized the Demands reveals one aspect of "Information warfare" in the negotiations.

Paper long abstract:

Japan's 21 Demands to China in 1915 are well-known as the start of the deterioration of Sino-Japanese relations. By concluding a treaty with China based on these demands, Japan gained a secure place in Manchuria. In retrospect, the demands can be regarded as the herald of Japanese expansion on the continent in the 1930s. On the other hand, China resisted Japan fiercely in the negotiations, which became a catalyst for Chinese nationalism.

Negotiations over the 21 Demands were not done only by politicians and diplomats: the media and public opinions did have a great impact on them. It is already well-known that the 21 Demands were criticized all over the world. However, how commentators criticized them and how such criticism affected the negotiations are issues that previous studies have overlooked. This paper analyzes the logic underlying criticism of the 21 Demands by Japanese newspapers and magazines, and points out that a "Monroe Doctrine for Asia" was common in almost all of their comments.

This paper covers the general trend of the major media in Japan, but particularly focuses on the arguments of some media which have been neglected in previous studies. It is the case of local newspapers such as the Nagoya Shinbun and Shin-Aichi. Not only national newspapers, but also local ones were much interested in the 21 Demands. Media of the latter kind, too, made frequent and severe criticism. The analysis of these criticisms of the local newspapers is useful for judging to what extent a "Monroe Doctrine for Asia" prevailed in the country. Another source examined here is Tokyo Puck, a caricature magazine which contains a lot of caricatures of the negotiations in its 1915 issues. Through an analysis of these caricatures, we can easily understand the stereotyped image of 21 Demands in the Japanese media.