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- Convenors:
-
M Niaz Asadullah
(University of Reading)
Uma Kambhampati (University of Reading)
Send message to Convenors
- Format:
- Paper panel
- Stream:
- Gender, work and wellbeing
Short Abstract:
This panel explores the varied patterns of women’s labor force participation in the Global South. It seeks insights into regional disparities, positive deviance, and emerging trends, with a focus on South Asia, MENA, and Southeast Asia.
Description:
Girls’ enrollment in schools and women’s literacy rates have increased in most countries of the world during the MDG era. Increase in women’s engagement in labor markets has been much slower to relative growth in female schooling, causing international variation withing developing Asia. The average rate of women’s labor force participation in South Asia and MENA is 28% and 18%, respectively, compared to a much higher 58% in East Asia and the Pacific. Moreover, there are instances of positive deviance. In Southeast Asia, female labor force participation rates range from a high of 68% in Vietnam to a low of 47% in the Philippines. In the MENA region, women’s labor force participation varies significantly, from 64% in Qatar to just 14% in Jordan.
This panel invites papers to explore why women’s labor force participation in the Global South has been so varied. What explains Southeast Asia’s relatively high female labor force participation rates? Conversely, why has women’s employment stagnated in South Asia and MENA despite the rise in female education? Are there emerging cases of positive deviance at the country level? Why is women’s employment so low in India? Have Saudi Arabia’s recent policy changes positively impacted women’s employment? To what extent are these patterns shaped by persistent gender norms? Alternatively, is the structure and growth of certain economies reinforcing low participation rates for women?
Accepted papers will be considered for a special issue in the Journal of Development Perspective.
Accepted papers:
Session 1Paper short abstract:
This paper examines Uzbekistan's agricultural cluster reforms, showing how they increased female labor participation while reinforcing gender disparities. It contributes to understanding the interplay of economic reforms, labor markets, and structural inequalities in transition economies.
Paper long abstract:
This study investigates the impact of Uzbekistan's agricultural cluster reforms on female labor participation. These reforms, aimed at boosting productivity and attracting private investment, were implemented by integrating supply chains. Using a difference-in-differences (DiD) approach with survey data from Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan (2018 and 2022), this study reveals that the cluster reforms heterogeneously increased female employment while reinforcing gender- and skill-based polarization. Agricultural cluster reforms increased female participation in permanent roles, particularly for skilled workers, while also expanding the prevalence of seasonal hired labor characterized by lower pay, informal contracts, and job insecurity. Mechanization, as a complementary factor, encourages the participation of skilled females in permanent jobs but substitutes unskilled seasonal female labor.
Paper short abstract:
My study is a comparative study of FLPR in India and China and how FLPR is related to female enrollment in tertiary education. Both India and China saw rapid growth after economic reforms and have seen increase in female educational levels, but their FLPR trajectories remain troubling.
Paper long abstract:
Standard economic theory suggests that as countries reach a particular level of growth, FLPR rises. However, two of the fastest-growing countries in the world have shown very different FLPR trends. China has been witnessing a fall in the FLPR while India, after a declining FLPR between 1994 and 2004, has seen a sudden rise in the FLPR from 2018 onwards. This sudden rise in the FLPR in India has been attributed to “distress". The fall in female LFPR in China, on the other hand, has been attributed to changing birth policies and the increasing role of women in care work. Despite miracle growth that started with economic reforms, the trajectories of FLPR in the two countries remain troubling.
I attempt to understand the relationship between FLPR and women’s enrollment in tertiary education in both India and China, using World Bank data from 1990-2023. The relationship between education and FLPR is a crucial one. Past findings have found that education has a positive effect on FLPR. However, my analysis shows that China shows a negative relationship between the two while India represents an inverted U-relationship between the two variables. Such relationships have other implications. Social norms are crucial in both countries along with the burden of unpaid work. In India, availability of non-farm jobs amidst its “jobless growth” determines women’s labour market decisions. In China, rural-urban dichotomies are important. Through a comparison between India and China, I attempt to understand where women are placed amidst miracle growth and decent educational attainment.
Paper short abstract:
Multiethnic Malaysia is characterized by significant spatial variation in social norms which provides an ideal setting to investigate the role of early-life exposure to location specific norms (growing up in locations with traditional norms) on women's later life decisions
Paper long abstract:
Malaysia's female labor force participation (LFP) rate remains low relative to its level of economic development. Given the country’s multi-ethnic social structure, this paper re-examines the barriers to women’s labor market participation with a particular focus on social factors. We hypothesize that an individual's place of birth captures the long-term influence of localized customs, gender roles, and family values, which vary significantly across Malaysia (e.g., the Malay heartland states of Kelantan and Terengganu versus the rest of the country) and can act as a social determinant of women’s LFP decisions. To test this, we analyze the determinants of women’s labor market entry and exit decisions, focusing on the role of place of birth. The study uses a hybrid dataset combining individual-level data from the MPFS 2014 survey with district-level labor market data from the HIS 2012 survey. The findings reveal that women who spent their childhood in Kelantan and Terengganu are significantly more likely to opt out of the labor market, while no such effect is observed for men. Complementary analysis using the 2012 World Values Survey on attitudes toward homosexuality, prostitution, abortion, divorce, premarital sex, and wife-beating further supports the hypothesis. Malaysians residing in Kelantan and Terengganu exhibit significantly higher support for conservative social norms. Overall, the findings highlight the persistent influence of location-specific social customs and gender norms on women’s economic participation. Reform efforts aimed at shifting entrenched social attitudes toward women would play a crucial role in increasing female employment and reducing the gender gap in LFP.
Paper short abstract:
This study examines the impact of Saudi Arabia’s 2019 legal reforms on women’s employment using Before-and-After Analysis and Propensity Score Matching. Findings reveal a 10.5% increase in female employment, with notable gains in traditionally male-dominated sectors such as construction and trade.
Paper long abstract:
This study explores the transformative impact of Saudi Arabia’s 2019 legal reforms on women’s labour force participation (FLFP). As part of the Vision 2030 initiative, these reforms abolished male guardianship restrictions, prohibited workplace discrimination, and opened male-dominated industries to women. Using Labour Force Survey (LFS) data from 2019 and 2022, this research employs Before-and-After Analysis and Propensity Score Matching to provide robust estimates of the reforms’ impacts. The findings indicate a 10.5% rise in FLFP, with significant growth in private sector employment (22.7%) and male-dominated fields such as construction and trade. However, employment in the education sector—a traditional stronghold for women—declined by 12.7%, reflecting changing employment preferences and opportunities.
Grounded in feminist legal theory and human capital theory, the analysis highlights the effectiveness of these reforms in dismantling structural barriers and unlocking previously untapped human capital to drive economic growth. While the reforms have led to measurable progress, persistent socio-cultural barriers and the sustainability of newly created opportunities merit further investigation. This study contributes to the discourse on gender equality, legal reforms, and labour market dynamics in conservative contexts, offering insights into the interplay between policy interventions and entrenched social norms.
Paper short abstract:
This paper examines an NGO’s craft-based Women’s Economic Empowerment programme in Egypt. It explores how caregiving responsibilities intersect with women’s labour opportunities and how organisational mediation and power play shape women’s continued labour participation.
Paper long abstract:
This paper examines women’s labour force participation through a case study NGO’s handicraft-based Women’s Economic Empowerment programme in, Egypt, implemented across three of the poorest Cairo neighbourhoods: Imbaba, Sayeda Ayesha, and Dar Al Salam. Drawing on qualitative data from 49 participants through focus groups, interviews, and ethnographic observations, it investigates how caregiving responsibilities intersect with precarious labour opportunities and how organizational mediation and power play affect women’s continued labour participation.
Handicraft workshop supervisors are critical intermediaries between the NGOs funding them and the women who work for them (NGO beneficiaries). Supervisors are crucial in accommodating women’s caregiving responsibilities through flexible working conditions and care-oriented management styles. In this research, women workers expressed that their entry into the labour market, empowerment, and well-being requires more than economic resources; it involves supervisors recognising their double burdens and exercising power with an ethic of care. These findings reveal that care support systems and care-oriented management styles embedded within precarious handicraft workshops can mitigate structural barriers to women’s labour force entry and continued participation. Therefore, handicraft workshop supervisors can act as either facilitators or hinderers of women’s labour force entry and continued participation.
The paper situates these findings within the broader context of MENA’s low female labour force participation rates. By analysing the role of mediators as gateways or gatekeepers, the paper contributes to development debates by emphasising the undervaluation of care work and highlighting the opportunities and limitations of mediation in enhancing women’s economic participation and empowerment in precarious labour markets.
Paper short abstract:
While Tamil Nadu state in India has a higher female labour force participation than the national average, this has been declining over the past two decades. Through a longitudinal qualitative study, this paper explores why this might be the case.
Paper long abstract:
The south Indian state of Tamil Nadu shows a higher labour force participation rate for women than the national average consistently over the last twenty years, attributed to factors such as higher wages for women in south India, or the cultivation of female labour-intensive crops such as paddy. However, as in other parts of the country, women here too have been ‘dropping out’ of the labour force since 2004. In 2017-18, the gender gap in male and female work participation was 39.5 percentage points, compared to 28.3 percentage points in 1999-2000 (Iyer et al., 2022). This paper investigates this declining trend through an intergenerational, gendered analysis of work patterns, and divisions of labour within the home and outside. Has a shift to a male provider-female housewife model from dual member working households (Rao, 2014) been further consolidated, and if so, what are its implications for women’s agency in households and communities?
Work-life course interviews were carried out in 2021 with 12 married couples from five villages in the Thiruppur-Coimbatore cluster in Tamil Nadu as part of a revisit village study, interviewed earlier by Rao in 2009. Interviews were also carried out with at least two adult offspring of the couples. Using the data collected in the two rounds of study, we analyse changes in gendered participation in paid and unpaid work across generations and its implications for gender relations over the life course to add to the literature on longitudinal change in rural India.
Paper long abstract:
This qualitative study examines the role of gender norms in shaping female labor force participation (FLFP) across South Asia, focusing on Bangladesh (urban/rural Dhaka), India (Chennai, Haryana), Pakistan (urban/rural Lahore), and Nepal (Madhesh, Bagmati, Sudurpaschim). The sample comprises 141 in-depth interviews and includes main female respondents (daughters/daughters-in-law), their mothers or mothers-in-law, and a male household member (husband/father-in-law/son). Methodologically, open-ended questions and vignettes were employed to explore employment-related behavior and gender norms. Findings reveal that entrenched gender norms perpetuate a cycle of economic exclusion for women, particularly in low-income households. Women’s domestic and caregiving responsibilities are prioritized above all else, limiting economic engagement and reinforcing financial dependence, which reduces decision-making power and entrenches traditional roles. In rural Haryana, rigid norms severely restrict FLFP, while in urban Chennai, women’s participation is more acceptable but typically under financial distress. Across all contexts, women’s economic activities are framed as responses to necessity rather than empowerment, reflecting the lack of intrinsic value attributed to their labor. Interestingly, women express higher aspirations for their daughters, emphasizing education and economic independence, but continue to uphold traditional expectations for daughters-in-law. This generational disparity highlights potential for change but underscores structural and societal barriers that marginalize women in wage employment. Finally, while financial need is a primary motivator for women’s work, vignette analysis reveals intrinsic motivators such as independence, knowledge, and respect. These findings highlight the need to address restrictive norms and reframe women’s economic participation as empowerment rather than a response to financial distress.
Paper short abstract:
This study examines how perceptions of limited financial autonomy influence women’s labour market participation in Jordan. It proposes extending the concept of 'reservation conditions' to include perceptions of financial autonomy, highlighting their role in shaping labour market decisions.
Paper long abstract:
Despite rising levels of female education in the MENA region, women’s labour force participation remains among the lowest globally, with Jordan at just 14%. Traditional explanations, such as the concept of the reservation wage, fail to fully capture the complexity of barriers to women’s labour market entry. Whereas recent research highlights reservation conditions—factors such as workplace gender ratios, work hours, and societal norms—as barriers to women’s labour market entry, an overlooked dimension is women’s perceptions of their own financial autonomy within households.
Based on years of fieldwork in Jordan, this study explores how perceptions of limited financial autonomy influence women’s labour market participation. For example, women often express sentiments such as: “Why work if I will not have a say in how my money is spent?” These observations suggest that financial autonomy may form a key part of women’s reservation conditions, deterring labour force entry even in cases where other barriers have been addressed.
This study examines patterns of women’s labour market participation across Jordan, focusing on how persistent gender norms, reflected in financial autonomy, contribute to the country’s low rate of female labour force participation. Using data from the Jordanian Labour Market Panel Survey (2010–2024) and the Demographic and Health Survey, the study analyses how these norms manifest and persist across time, offering insights into structural and normative constraints and their implications for women’s employment decisions.
Paper short abstract:
This study examines women's labour force participation in India, focusing on factors like marital status, education, and household dynamics. It explores barriers such as caregiving and societal norms, providing policy recommendations to enhance women's workforce involvement and economic growth.
Paper long abstract:
This study investigates the decline in women’s labour force participation (LFPR) in India following marriage, with a focus on intrahousehold factors such as spousal attitudes, caregiving responsibilities, and family expectations. Despite a global rise in women’s workforce engagement, India continues to experience a notable decline in female participation post-marriage. Utilizing data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey and the National Family Health Survey (2016-2024), the study employs a regression discontinuity design to explore the causal impact of marital status on women’s LFPR. The analysis controls for key variables like educational attainment, spousal attitudes, caregiving responsibilities, and family expectations.
The study aims to demonstrate that marital status significantly impacts women’s labour force participation, with married women in India showing a notable decrease in LFPR. It will explore how intrahousehold dynamics—such as caregiving responsibilities and family norms—contribute to this decline. Additionally, the study will examine the role of educational attainment in sustaining workforce participation post-marriage and assess how the duration of marriage affects continued engagement in the workforce.
The findings will offer valuable insights into the intersection of gender norms, family structures, and women’s economic participation, highlighting the critical role that family dynamics play in shaping women’s workforce decisions. By addressing these factors, the study aims to provide policy recommendations to encourage greater participation of married women in the workforce, contributing to more inclusive economic growth in India. This research fills a gap in existing literature by offering a comprehensive look at the socio-cultural barriers to female employment post-marriage.
Paper short abstract:
Benefits of better understanding through my longitudinal study of Dhaka city (1991-2010) published from the Oxford University Press. It is rare to get an opportunity to learn from longitudinal study of city given the high mobility and attrition rates.
Paper long abstract:
Sociologists often consider city as the ‘uncontested homes of progress’ (Durkheim 1933) and women’s emancipation is the centrepiece of progress. Employment generated through ready-made garment sector and micro-credit have been proven to be conducive to poverty alleviation and women’s freedom in Bangladesh. Therefore, like education, employment is a major factor towards women’s emancipation and cities provide more opportunities and options for that. However, this is not the case for Dhaka city. With an estimated population of 23.9 million, Dhaka is the fourth largest cities of the world.
Despite rapid urbanisation of Dhaka city, women’s labour force participation rate is declining or lower, compared with urban average. This is vexing amidst supportive parameters such as increased enrolment rates of girls and lower age-dependency ratio and given that almost all future population growth in Bangladesh will be in urban areas centralising around Dhaka and its peripheries. .
Drawing largely on Afsar and Hossain’s longitudinal study on Dhaka city (2020), this paper will probe deeper into employment trends and occupational patterns of women from different socio-economic backgrounds – slum/non-slum, migrant/non-migrant, more/less educated over time to capture variations. It will identify barriers to women’s employment through gender norms/roles and other factors in the supply-side and missing-middle syndrome in the demand-side with a few suitable policy options.
Paper short abstract:
Increasing FDI in electronics has intensified labour demand in Malaysia and Vietnam. This works analyses the evolving structure of manufacturing workforce through the lens of adverse incorporation of women and migrants, arguing that the two countries stand at two different points of the same trend.
Paper long abstract:
In the past fifty years, southeast Asian countries have increased their participation into global production networks, as capital from central economies started moving toward peripheral ones. Electronics manufacturing has been among the leading sectors this process, with foreign direct investments moving as a function of low labour costs in the hosting country. Since outsourced tasks have been predominantly labour-intensive, demand for so-called cheap labour ramped up in these countries, requiring readjustments in the occupational structure to satisfy capital’s need for manufacturing workers. As Malaysia and Vietnam are among the main recipients of electronics FDI, this paper analyses the evolution of the structure of their workforce, using the concept of adverse incorporation proposed by Phillips (2013). It argues that adverse incorporation followed a wave pattern, with women being first absorbed in the industry as the most vulnerable group and migrant being then attracted into manufacturing only after female workforce exhausted. The works identifies Malaysia and Vietnam as standing at two different points of the same trend: while women labour conditions and livelihoods in Malaysia are improving thanks to the more recent and persistent adverse incorporation of migrants, women workers in Vietnamese manufacturing are still experiencing the same working conditions, as current labour demand and national policies such as the Ho Khau System hinder the absorption of additional and more vulnerable workforce.
References:
Phillips, N. (2013). Unfree labour and adverse incorporation in the global economy: Comparative perspectives on Brazil and India. Economy and society, 42(2), 171-196.
Paper short abstract:
This paper will be a short documentary. It examines the intersection between economic abuse (controlling a woman’s work life) and women’s employment in India. It explores five women's experiences of navigating the systemic and familial challenges to negotiate economic freedom through paid work.
Paper long abstract:
This paper will be in the form of a short documentary (20 mins). This film explores the intersection of economic abuse and women’s employment in Patna (Bihar), India. Bihar’s female labour force participation rate of 6.4% in 2022 (NFHS-5, 2019–21) is one of the lowest in the country. Preventing women from working is a form of economic abuse, recognised in the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, India (2005).
The film is based on the accounts of five women, following interviews with 50 women and group discussions with 25 more women representing diverse class, religious, and caste backgrounds. Further, they represented a diversity of occupational categories, including professional roles, manual work, daily wage work, and homemakers.
The film explores the role of the invisible burden of unpaid care work, male control over women’s work life, and deeply normalised social norms and systemic challenges in limiting women’s ability to participate in the labour market. The film’s protagonists—a government sanitation worker, a private mall security guard and a domestic worker, a self-employed rickshaw driver, an entrepreneur, and a homemaker and artist, although from diverse backgrounds embody similar strategies to fulfill their aspirations for economic autonomy. These strategies including careful maintenance of existing power relations and complex negotiations lead to a variety of outcomes – from significant control to no control over finances challenging the simplistic binaries of empowerment and oppression. The paper argues that context-specific policies as key to achieving women’s economic safety and equitable economic participation.