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Khanqahs of the Khalwatiyya Order as Spaces of Knowledge, Power, and Social Discipline in Medieval Shirvan

This paper examines khanqahs associated with the Khalwatiyya Sufi order in medieval Shirvan through an integrated analysis of architectural form, spatial organization, epigraphic evidence, and Sufi textual production. It argues that Khalwati khanqahs functioned as deliberately structured environments in which architectural composition, functional zoning, and ritual practice were closely interrelated, enabling the formation of ethical discipline and non-coercive religious authority.

A central case study is the complex traditionally known as the “Mausoleum of the Dervish,” identified as the burial site of Seyid Yahya Bakuvi, located within the Palace of the Shirvanshahs. It was in this courtly environment that Seyid Yahya composed his theological and philosophical treatises (rasaʾil), illustrating the close spatial and intellectual entanglement of Khalwati scholarship with dynastic authority.

The Khalwatiyya’s emphasis on khalwa (ritual retreat) and disciplined silence shaped distinctive architectural solutions, including systems of secluded cells, transitional spaces, and collective communal zones. Clear spatial zoning, controlled circulation routes, and hierarchical subordination of spaces facilitated isolation within community, aligning bodily movement, ritual discipline, and moral training.

Analyzing the placement of khanqahs within urban centers as well as on the periphery, the paper conceptualizes Khalwati institutions as a network of urban and communicative nodes linking administrative-political centers with rural environments. Through this spatial distribution, khanqahs mediated flows of authority, knowledge, and ethical norms between city and countryside, reinforcing social cohesion beyond formal state structures.

Drawing also on epigraphic evidence documented by Neimat, including inscriptions from the “Sixty-Six Saints” (66 Awliya) complex in the Guba region and sites in the Khachmaz district, the study contributes to broader debates on how religious space in Central Eurasia generated durable forms of authority and socio-spatial connectivity.

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This paper examines how state-led nation-building policies in independent Kazakhstan have influenced the transformation of the urban environment of Taraz. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Kazakhstan initiated a process of constructing a new national identity and reinterpreting historical and cultural narratives. These political and ideological changes were reflected not only in cultural and political institutions but also in the spatial organization of cities.

Urban development in many non-capital and regional centers, including one of the oldest cities of Kazakhstan — Taraz — is complicated by their provincial status and often exists in a state of a particular “epistemic oblivion.” The central problem of this research concerns the phenomenon of development itself: from Central Asian cities to provincial centers of a postcolonial state. Due to the policies of an ethnonational state, attention to the history, urban planning development, and cultural fabric of the city often remains fragmented, which makes it difficult to understand the broader context and the evolution of the urban environment. As a result, local architecture and the urban framework of the city remain insufficiently visible in both academic and public discourse.

The study focuses on the transformation of Taraz and analyzes how changes in urban planning policies, the construction of new monuments, the redesign of public spaces, and the reinterpretation of historical heritage have shaped the visual and symbolic landscape of the city. The analysis demonstrates that urban space becomes an important medium through which state ideology and national identity are materialized.

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This study investigates the urban transformation of Merv (known as Marw al-Shahijan) during the Great Seljuk period (11-12th centuries CE), when it served as the imperial capital in Khurasan. While previous scholarship has emphasized the Seljuk tendency of ruling from outside, maintaining a strategic separation from established Persianate urban centers, this study argues that Merv exemplifies a more sophisticated manifestation of nomadic statecraft. The Seljuks did not merely reside on the outskirts of Merv, but actively reconfigured the landscape to integrate the nomadic mobility with the requirements of an oasis capital.

The study identifies a three-stage evolution: first, the utilization of the ancient city (Gyaur Kala) as a nomadic stronghold and resource hub; second, the construction of the Sultan Kala walls and the consolidation of hydraulic control over the Murghab river’s canal networks; and third, the monumentalization of the city center, culminating in the construction of Sultan Sanjar’s mausoleum. In this process, Merv featured dual centers of power. The Shahriyar Ark functioned as the Sultan’s residence and administrative nucleus. Its location in the northeast corner of the Sultan Kala served a dual purpose: providing a secure and isolated space for the nomadic elites while maintaining immediate access to the northern steppe. In the late period, the construction of Sanjar’s mausoleum at the city’s geometric center became a symbolic focal point, translating nomadic authority into the permanent architectural language of the Perso-Islamic world.

By integrating archaeological evidence with historical texts, this study demonstrates that Merv’s spatial organization was both concentric and radial, as it structured social hierarchies through space, while projecting power through the water system. The Seljuks’ experimental urbanism served as a crucial precursor to the later mausoleum cities of the Mongol era, such as Sultaniyya and Almaliq. Thus, the study of Seljuk Merv offers a key example of the nomadic empire’s approach to urban governance.

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This paper investigates the historical presence and spatial organization of Jewish communities in northwestern Iran and Azerbaijan, with a particular focus on the vibrant Jewish neighborhoods of Baku and Krasnaya Sloboda. By examining synagogues, communal institutions, and residential areas, the study explores how these sacred and communal spaces structured social life, mediated cultural and economic exchange, and facilitated transregional networks across Central Eurasia.The research situates Iranian cities such as Tabriz and Urmia within a broader regional context, highlighting historical connections between Jewish communities in Iran and the Caucasus. Combining architectural analysis, archival research, and spatial mapping, the study demonstrates how synagogues and communal buildings functioned both as physical anchors and as social infrastructures, enabling Jewish communities to maintain cohesion, identity, and cross-border relations despite changing political landscapes.By foregrounding Jewish sacred and urban spaces in Baku and Krasnaya Sloboda, this paper contributes to broader debates on minority heritage, urban diversity, and spatial politics in Central Eurasia. It argues that examining these communities offers critical insights into the ways marginalized groups shaped and were shaped by the cities they inhabited, revealing the interplay between place, power, and social networks in a transregional setting.