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Abstract

Nadir Shah Afshar (1688–1747), the founder of the Afsharid state, was one of the most influential political and military figures of the eighteenth century. His rapid rise to power, large-scale military campaigns, and attempts to reorganize the political structure of the former Safavid–Qizilbash state and its neighboring regions attracted the attention not only of local chroniclers but also of numerous European and Russian observers. As a result, a substantial body of sources produced outside the region emerged during his lifetime and shortly after his death. These materials played an important role in shaping the early historiographical discourse on Nadir Shah in Europe and Russia.

This paper examines how historical events related to Nadir Shah were interpreted and represented in European and Russian sources of the eighteenth century. These sources include diplomatic correspondence, embassy reports, travel accounts, early biographies, and journalistic publications. The study focuses not only on the factual information contained in these texts but also on the discursive frameworks through which authors interpreted political developments in the Afsharid state.

One of the most remarkable aspects of the European discourse on Nadir Shah is the fact that extensive historical works and the first attempts to write his biography appeared while he was still alive. Beginning in the late 1730s, European publications started describing his rise to power, his military successes, and his campaigns in the Caucasus, Central Asia, and India. Throughout the eighteenth century, numerous works devoted to Nadir Shah were published in France, England, the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, and Russia. Within the intellectual context of the Enlightenment, European authors often interpreted Nadir Shah through the conceptual framework of “Oriental despotism.” At the same time, many texts compared Nadir Shah to classical conquerors such as Alexander the Great, emphasizing his military genius and extraordinary political career.

Russian sources provide a particularly valuable perspective on the political processes taking place within the Afsharid state. Diplomatic reports and intelligence materials produced by Russian officials contain detailed descriptions of internal political dynamics, court intrigues, and struggles for power within the ruling elite. These sources also reflect the geopolitical interests of the Russian Empire in the Caspian region and the South Caucasus.

By analyzing these sources comparatively, the paper explores how European and Russian observers constructed narratives about political authority, imperial expansion, and internal crisis in the Afsharid state.

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The abstract offers a reinterpretation of one of the most influential concept on the history of Khiva Khanate (Khwarazm) in the early modern period. According to Yu. Bregel, 'frequent attacks on the territories of Iran and Bukhara were a defining feature of political life in Khorezm during the 19th century', that led V.V. Bartold to describe it as a barbaric country of robbers.’ The scholar notes that 'during the reign of the Shaybanids (Arabshahids), the cultural level of the Uzbeks in Khiva was incomparably lower than in Bukhara; even Khiva Khan Abulgazi (1603–1664) was forced to take on this task himself, as there was no one among his subjects capable of writing the country's history.'

In this case, Abulgazi Khan's own statement about writing his historical work ‘Shazharayi Turk’, where he emphasises that ‘due to the negligence of his ancestors and the lack of a capable person, he was forced to write the history of his country himself’, served as the basis for this conclusion.

V.V. Bartold attributes Abulgazi Khan's high level of education to his ten-year stay in Iran, and this view also supported by A.N. Kononov.

Only through careful analysis can appropriate conclusions be drawn about the reality of the situation. One should not forget that Abulgazi Khan was 26 years old when he was sent to Persia. It is unlikely that the most prominent member of the khan's family did not receive a basic education at that age.

Abulgazi Khan was born and raised during a period directly linked to the political stability, growth in foreign trade, and economic and agricultural development that had been achieved during the reigns of his grandfather, Haji Muhammad Khan, and his father, Arab Muhammad Khan.

The Madrasah of Arab Muhammad Khan, built in Khiva in 1613, naturally became a centre of learning and education.

Appointed ruler (kadhuda) of Urgench at the age of 16, Abulgazi Sultan played an active role in almost all the country's military and administrative affairs. As he himself noted, he was given a special talent to know the history. This quote from ‘Shazharaya Turk’ can also be seen as a tool used by Abulgazi Khan to legitimise his accession to the Khivan throne.

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When studying history, it is important to identify written sources and determine their specific characteristics. This is because each work differs in its purpose and in the unique way it presents events, reflecting them in a manner characteristic of the author.

This thesis uses the example of the work Dili Garaib (The Heart of Rarities), written in 1831–1832 in Khorezm, to examine how codicological information about manuscripts can serve as a basis for forming a general idea of the time when the book was created and the socio-political situation of the corresponding era. The author of Dili Garaib, Khudayberdi ibn Kushmuhammad, was known not only as a scholar but also as a translator of works written in Arabic and Persian into the Turkic language. This manuscript, written in a harmonious combination of scientific and artistic styles, has survived in five copies. Four of them are kept at the Al-Biruni Institute of Oriental Studies, Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences. Another copy is in the personal library of N. Palvanov (1965–2020), a specialist in the history of Khorezm and candidate of historical sciences (265 sheets).

The complete and final version of Dili Garaib (inv. no. 1335) is an autograph, as it was written by the author himself, Khudayberdi ibn Kushmukhammad. The manuscript consists of 266 pages. In the introductory part (pp. 1b–5a), according to established tradition, the Khiva Khan Allakulikhan (1825–1842) is glorified. The manuscript has come down to us in its complete and finished form.

No. 853/I – this list of works was copied by an unknown scribe at the end of the 19th century. Pages 171b–207b of the manuscript are missing; in its preserved form, it consists of 172 pages. In this copy, was replaced with Sayid Muhammadamin (1846–1855).

No. 8484 – this list of works by Dili Garaib consists of four sheets. Only one chapter of the work was transcribed in 1941 by the literary scholar and historian Hasanmurad Laffasi (1905–1945).

In conclusion, it should be noted that the codicological data of the sources, in particular, the time of creation or rewriting of the manuscripts, the changes or abbreviations made, make it possible to recreate a kind of historical picture, conditioned by the requirements of the era or the customer. Also, based on this information, it is possible to trace the dynamics of the transformation of the manuscript throughout its transmission to the present day.

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Waqf documents constitute one of the most significant types of legal documents. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of a late eighteenth century scroll of waqf documents from the Bukharan Emirate during the reign of the Manghit ruler Amīr Shāhmurād (1785–1800). The principal source base for the study is a scroll containing thirty waqf documents preserved in the National Archive of Uzbekistan.

During the reign of Amīr Shāhmurād, numerous of endowments were restored, while new awqāf were established on a considerable scale, representing as a distinctive historical phenomenon of the period. This development reflected the ruler’s religious convictions, his legal responsibilities, and his adherence to the norms of Islam and Sharia law, while also serving political, economic, and administrative objectives. The practice may be regarded as a state-implemented project. In particular, the assembly of documents into a single scroll and their arrangement according to a defined order gave rise to a distinctive form of “record management” (archiving). As in other waqf scrolls, the upper section of the examined bundle records the names of the religious and educational institutions for which the awqāf were established, thereby supporting this interpretation.

The study further applies two methodological approaches to the analysis of legal documents identified by Thomas Welsford: “evocative reading” and “antiphonal reading”.

Within the framework of “evocative reading,” the analysis focuses on reconstructing the possible purposes of the text, including the intentions and motivations of the actors involved, within their historical context. The compilation of waqf documents into a single scroll is interpreted as a strategic instrument for consolidating property and legal claims on behalf of specific individuals or institutions, facilitating stronger control over waqf assets and greater stability in property relations.

The method of “antiphonal reading,” in turn, made it possible to interpret the text of the document not solely from the perspective of the environment in which it was produced, but rather within the broader context of socio-political processes. The analysis of social strata, waqf subjects and their dynamics, property types and volumes, revenue distribution, and seals illuminates the character of socio-economic relations reflected in the documents. Variations in the size of endowed land properties indicate the participation of diverse social groups in the endowment process, while the exclusive presence of Amīr Shāhmurād’s seal suggests the existence of a formal mechanism for supervising waqf estates.