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Paper short abstract:

This paper explores 18th-century charcoal production at Keban-Ergani Mines in the Ottoman Empire. Charcoal dependence harmed ecology and communities, illustrating mining's impact on Kurdistan's lives, economies, and ecosystems, showcasing Ottoman colonial mineral exploitation.

Paper long abstract:

This paper delves into the socio-economic and environmental ramifications of eighteenth-century charcoal production in the Keban-Ergani Mines within the Ottoman Empire. Situated in the eastern frontier primarily inhabited by Kurds and Armenians, these mines held immense significance for the empire, abundant with copper, gold, and silver reserves that fueled the Imperial Mint and Ottoman military industry. Despite diminishing silver from the Americas, the economy's commercialization and prolonged conflicts with Iran, the Habsburgs, and Russia heightened the need for money and mints. Technological advancements enabled faster and smoother coin minting, leading to the establishment of provincial mints across the empire.

Sustained production in these pivotal mines relied on a constant charcoal supply from nearby forests, unlike Europe where coal became abundant in the late eighteenth century. However, this dependence on charcoal negatively impacted the social ecology of the region. Loggers had to travel as far as 150 miles beyond the mining area to acquire wood, resulting in increased safety risks and costs. The local population became less cooperative due to these challenges, causing intermittent mine halts due to fuel shortages. By the 1830s, areas surrounding the mines either lacked wood entirely or had forests depleted without regeneration efforts.

This paper scrutinizes how pre-capitalist mineral extraction practices, specifically in the Keban-Ergani mines of Kurdistan, transformed the lives of the local population, regional economies, and ecology. It posits that mining significantly contributed to advancing Ottoman colonization in Kurdistan through economic exploitation, environmental degradation, heightened state control, and suppression of local autonomy.