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Paper long abstract:

In Qing documents produced in Manchu during the Qianlong reign (1736–95), two characteristics can be observed regarding the term ejen. The first is that it signifies the sovereign, i.e., the Qing emperor, and is very rarely used in its original sense as a common noun meaning “master” of various groups and social classes. Secondly, the word used to refer to the Qing emperor is primarily ejen, and it is used with overwhelming frequency when compared with han, hūwangdi (transcription of Chinese huangdi, or “emperor”), and dergi (originally “above,” by extension “His Majesty”), which are also used to refer to the Qing emperor. I undertake a basic inquiry into the historical circumstances and background that led to the establishment of a schema equating ejen with the Qing emperor.

At the time of the founding of the Qing dynasty in 1636, the only person using the title han within Qing territory was Hong Taiji, the emperor at that time. On the other hand, if we turn our attention to the outer periphery of Qing territory, there existed several royal families possessing the traditional title of khan (qaγan, khān) of which the Qing was aware at the time of its seizure of Beijing in 1644, such as the three khan families of the Qalqas and the Tibetan kings of the Qinghai Khoshuuds. First the Kangxi emperor (r. 1662–1722) did not regard it as a problem. However, around the time of the Qalqas’ submission to the Qing dynasty, the Kangxi emperor began to become actively involved in inheritance of the title of khan among the Qalqas. In this paper, I point out that the main reasons for this were the submission to the Qing dynasty by the three khan families of the Qalqa Mongols in the late seventeenth century and the creation of the han peerage for them. The resultant problematic situation of both the sovereign and his subjects having the same title of han led to the avoidance of the use of han to refer to the Qing emperor and reinforced the tendency to use only ejen.

During the western campaigns in the mid-eighteenth century, the Qing formed relationships with Central Asian forces such as the Kazakhs and the Khoqand khanate. The correspondence with Central Asian khans shows that the Qing court was avoiding the use of han to refer to the Qing emperor.