Paper short abstract:

The archaeology of western Arnhem Land shows the existence of Indigenous hybrid economies operating during the period of culture contact with South East Asia and Europeans. This left a rich archaeological record from a period of at least 400 years.

Paper long abstract:

Recent archaeological research in western Arnhem Land has suggested that culture contact between Indigenous Arnhem Land communities and island South East Asia Mariners was occurring from at least the early to mid-17th century followed by a proliferation in the Macassan trepang processing industry from AD mid-18th century. The archaeological evidence evaluated in conjunction with historical, ethnographic, linguistic, and anthropological records shows the emergence and operation of distinct Indigenous hybrid economies in western Arnhem Land. The changes that occurred in Indigenous society accompanied by culture contact are assessed using the Indigenous hybrid economy model developed by Jon Altman. This paper argues that the archaeological evidence (i.e. occurrence of beads, rock art paintings of firearms and ships) establishes the presence of an operating hybrid economy among Indigenous people, Europeans, and island South East Asians. The operation of the hybrid economy allowed for Indigenous groups and individuals to negotiate and interact with others based on customary law and tradition to influence the outcomes in these exchanges, such as allowing others to be in their country and to utilise their resources (i.e. trepang, Asian water buffalo). Therefore culture contact for Indigenous communities in western Arnhem Land is more nuanced than previous two phase models of culture contact of just Macassans and Europeans. There are five significant and overlapping temporal phases of culture contact consisting of (a) pre-Macassan, (b) Macassan, (c) Colonial, (d) Mission, and (e) Welfare economic periods.