Paper short abstract:

Migration can lead to composite identities. An interesting case is that of conquest in a territory where language and ethnicity are closely aligned: what happens to the language and the identity of the group whose land has been overrun? We examine two contrasting villages in Northern Ghana.

Paper long abstract:

Spatial displacement usually entails linguistic and cultural contact, from which, composite identities may emerge. Such mobility is never without conflict; and enmity may remain for generations. We look at two villages in the Northern Region of Ghana, where there has been interethnic conflict. Ethnic group and language are closely aligned; we aim to show how earlier conquests have affected this alignment, resulting in ongoing disputes about ownership of territory and mixed identities. Our data is a large-scale language-use questionnaire combined with ethnography, the object of which was to discover language preferences in development communication contexts, either with NGOs or with local residents. Pong-Tamale lies in Dagbon, a former kingdom founded around 1480. In Dagbon, there is no dispute about territory, identity or language. Pong-Tamale contains many migrants from Ghana and surrounding countries; Dagbani is a common lingua franca. However, it faces competition from Hausa, a common lingua franca also used by foreign migrants. Pong-Tamale contrasts with Daboya, a village in the Gonja traditional area. The Gonjas' claim to the land is more recent (17th century), established through conquest. The Gonja language is dominant, but is in competition with others spoken by 'client' tribes in the same villages. Hausa is barely used. In Daboya, there is an uneasy truce between the Gonja and subordinated groups. Unlike in 'plural' Pong-Tamale, identity in Daboya is complex, composite and contextually-contingent - the same individual may claim to be Gonja or (e.g.) Tampulma depending on situation. All this is reflected in language choices.