Paper short abstract:

The power dynamics and territorial control of indigenous empires and their French adversaries in the Senegambia region shifted based on the loyalty of non-state actors: local military professionals. A study of these soldiers provides a clearer picture of empire building in West Africa.

Paper long abstract:

The period from 1850 to 1900 was marked by a vast expansion of France's colonial army. French officers attempted to solidify their control deep into the interior of West Africa. Fighting against indigenous empire builders in the Senegambia region, including Lat Joor and Al-Hajj Umar Taal, French colonial and military officials were dependent on local forms of military recruitment and conscription. Whether from the ceɗɗo/jaami-bur system of the former Jolof Empire or the sòfa/tónjon armies of Fuuta Tooro and jihādist forces of Al-Hajj Umar Taal and his successors, this reservoir of men likely provided the troops French officers needed for their expanding campaigns in the late 19th century.

Due to the chaotic political situation in the 19th century, more and more professional soldiers were available for military service as the states and patrons they served could no longer sustain their livelihoods. Even after the "weapons revolution," France was dependent on auxiliaries. Many would continue to serve at home and abroad in the early decades of the 20th century, including a growing métis officer class with both European and African ancestry. The power dynamics of these three expansionist polities, the Jolof Empire; the Umarian State; and the French Empire, shifted based on the loyalty of non-state actors, the military professionals of the region. A better understanding of these soldiers provides a clearer picture of the scope and context of empire building in West Africa.