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Short abstract:

This paper traces the sociotechnical imaginaries that shaped the evolution of Dutch digital identification in the past two decades. In doing so, this paper contributes valuable insights into the social construction of technology and its consequences for citizenship and inclusion in the digital age.

Long abstract:

This study analyses the landscape of DigiD, the Dutch digital identification system, examining the impact of sociotechnical imaginaries on its development over the past two decades. A novel concept, 'marginalising machines,' is introduced and explored within the context of digital inclusion and citizenship. The paper contends that technologies like DigiD, far from being neutral, wield socio-economic influence favouring the privileged while concurrently marginalising others.

Governments globally are increasingly capitalising on information and communication technologies to streamline state operations. The Dutch government, a trailblazer in this arena, has emphasised digital public services and identity verification. As the state transitions to digital-by-default, citizens face growing reliance on their digital capabilities for accessing public services. Despite the Netherlands boasting high digital literacy and internet penetration, a substantial segment, around 4.5 million individuals, encounters difficulties navigating government services, particularly DigiD, leading to social exclusion and loss of benefits.

Through a historical-diachronic critical discourse analysis of 360 policy documents spanning 2003 to 2023, the paper traces the evolution of sociotechnical imaginaries in shaping Dutch digital identification policy. Initially introduced to alleviate administrative burdens for vulnerable citizens, DigiD underwent shifts post-2011 due to several security scandals, prioritising security measures that inadvertently hindered accessibility. The 2018 Dutch childcare benefit scandal prompted renewed efforts to enhance the reliability of the digital welfare state, yet substantial barriers persist, limiting citizenship for many.

This study contributes valuable insights into the intricacies of digital policy, elucidating its impacts on citizenship and inclusion in the digital era.