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Paper short abstract

Animal mercy releases (hōjōe 放生) in Japan are rooted in Buddhist principles of compassion and the prohibition on killing. While intended to enhance animal welfare, these practices raise significant ethical and ecological issues, necessitating a thorough examination of their modern impacts.

Paper long abstract

Animal mercy releases, known as hōjōe 放生in Japanese, are rituals where animals are released during Shinto and Buddhist ceremonies. While often seen as compassionate and animal-friendly, their development raises important ethical and ecological concerns that require careful review of their current impact. The earliest known animal release rituals in Japan date to around 745 CE, nearly 200 years after Buddhism's introduction. Over time, these rituals merged with Shinto practices, making hōjōe a prominent example of how a Chinese Buddhist ritual was adapted into Japanese spirit-revering traditions (chinkonsai 鎮魂祭). Until the premodern era, hōjōe was closely tied to the Hachiman cult, spreading from Kyūshū's main shrine to Iwashimizu Shrine in Kyōto and across Japan. This changed when the Chinese text Jiesha fangsheng wen 戒殺放生文 (essay on non-killing and animal release) by monk Zhuhong 祩宏 (1535-1615), circulated in the early 16th century. It was then translated into Japanese vernacular by Jōdo Shin priest Asai Ryōi 浅井了意 (1612-1691). Subsequently, the ethic of avoiding killing and releasing animals gained popularity in Japan, influencing many Buddhist leaders and possibly inspiring the infamous “Laws of Compassion for Living Beings” (Shōruiawareminorei 生類憐みの令) enacted by the fifth Tokugawa shogun, Tsunayoshi 徳川綱吉 (1680-1709). During the late Edo period, animal release ceremonies shifted from their original form and evolved into the human-centred rituals we observe today. In these ceremonies, people can easily earn “karma” points for themselves and their ancestors without reflecting on their eating habits or how they treat animals. To acknowledge the ongoing popularity of these rituals, fish and birds became the primary animals released, as they were quickly caught and easy to set free. For decades, no attention was paid to the fact that many species, including some invasive ones, were chosen for these rituals due to their low procurement costs, which placed significant pressure on the local ecosystem. This paper aims to explore the history of the hōjōe ritual in Japan, its underlying ethical principles and its devastating ecological impact.

Keywords: Animals in Captivity, Release Ritual, Buddhism, Japan, China, Ecological impact, Animal Ethics, Environmental Ethics, Buddhist Ethics, Environmental Humanities.