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Paper short abstract

This study examines how gender and group membership shape digital inequality in smallholder agriculture. Using mixed methods, it finds men in farmer groups have the highest digital use, while women outside groups are most excluded, reflecting layered gendered power relations beyond infrastructure.

Paper long abstract

This paper aims to explore how gender and group membership intersect to shape digital inequality in smallholder agriculture, with a particular focus on women who are excluded from farmer collectives. This study is mixed-method approach which integrating quantitative analysis through Mann-Whitney U test and qualitative data using thematic analysis. Quantitative data found that there are significant differences in digital engagement, showing that men, especially those affiliated with farmer groups, report the highest levels of agricultural internet use, while women outside farmer groups consistently demonstrate the lowest levels. Digital access in agriculture is clearly unequal, shaped by both gender and group membership. Men who are part of farmer groups tend to use digital platforms as tools for experimentation, innovation, and personal advancement. Women in KWT, on the other hand, engage with digital agriculture mainly through collective activities, where farming is valued not only for income but also for social connection and emotional satisfaction. A very different situation is experienced by women outside farmer groups. For them, agricultural work is rarely seen as a personal choice or source of fulfillment, but rather as an obligation tied to their role as wives. In other words, this study shows that digital inequality in agriculture is not simply a problem of infrastructure or digital skills. Digital agriculture programs that ignore these social realities risk benefiting only those who already hold power, while further marginalizing women who remain outside collective structures.