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Paper short abstract

This study delivers the first nationwide evidence on who in India is being left behind in cybersecurity literacy. Using nearly one million survey responses, it shows that digital progress has not translated into digital safety for most citizens and that marginalised groups remain at greatest risk.

Paper long abstract

Cybersecurity literacy is defined as the ability to identify digital risks, protect personal data, and navigate online environments safely. It has become an essential yet insufficiently examined dimension of digital inclusion in India. As technology adoption accelerates and incidents of cyber fraud surge, the absence of cybersecurity literacy risks undermining the broader goals of digital governance and citizen empowerment. Drawing on nationally representative data from the National Sample Survey (79th round, 2022–23; N = 970,934), this study provides the first large-scale assessment of the distribution of cybersecurity literacy across socio-demographic groups in India. The results reveal that only 15.7% of individuals possess even basic cybersecurity competencies, with pronounced disparities across caste, gender, education, and age. Rural Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe women emerge as the most digitally vulnerable group. Utilizing the Capability Approach as an analytical framework, the study argues that cybersecurity literacy is not merely a technical skill but a foundational capability for meaningful digital participation. Without targeted interventions to expand this capability, India’s digital transformation risks reinforcing structural inequalities and exposing marginalized populations to heightened digital insecurity.