Paper short abstract:

This study highlights the interstate migrant workers’ exploitation in Ludhiana and Faridabad, with low wages, long working hours, a lack of social security, and weak labour law enforcement, which led to limited upward mobility among workers.

Paper long abstract:

This study examines the working conditions and social protection of interstate migrant workers in Ludhiana and Faridabad, two industrial cities in north-western India. Based on field research of 150 workers (75 from each city), it critically evaluates the effectiveness of existing labour laws and social security mechanisms. It is striking that industries in both cities heavily depend on interstate migrant workers, mainly from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh - India’s poorest states. Most of the workers belonged to marginalised communities, including Muslims, highlighting the intersectionality of economic and social vulnerabilities. These workers are trapped in precarious employment, characterised by low wages, long working hours, and limited access to social protections. Over 85 per cent of workers reported working 9 to 11 hours daily, six days a week, without adequate overtime compensation, while only 29 per cent held Employee State Insurance (ESI) cards, leaving the majority unprotected from economic shocks or health emergencies.

Moreover, half of the migrant workers belonged to second-generation migrant households – either the father is/was a migrant or the son(s) is a migrant. Nevertheless, occupational mobility – from low-skilled to high-skilled work – has been limited across generations. At the same time, there has been mobility in most cases, where the second-generation migrants have managed to find better jobs with relatively higher educational levels or technical education. The study highlights critical issues, including weak enforcement of labour laws, wage exploitation, and the enduring informality in urban labour markets.