Paper short abstract:

We examine the precarious South Asia to Middle East migration route for female migrant workers to determine conditions that lead to exploitation along the migration pathway and mechanisms that reduce forced labor, highlighting the role of COVID-19 in exacerbating yet exposing vulnerabilities.

Paper long abstract:

Millions of female migrants experience various forms of exploitative and unsafe conditions when migrating for employment and income generation, both in countries of origin and in destination countries. For migrant workers the Covid-19 pandemic has caused income and job losses, entrapment in countries of destination without financial or social support, as well as stigmatization upon returning home. One of the key migration routes travelled by millions of migrants is from South Asia to the Middle East. We examine this precarious migration route for female migrant workers, particularly domestic and readymade garments workers, to highlight the conditions and challenges that lead to exploitation along the migration pathway. We determine what are considered the most important or effective (as well as least effective) mechanisms for reducing forced labour and trafficking. We draw lessons from the literature as well as interviews with key informants in the field, inclusive of academics, development partners, NGO workers, and policymakers, to identify promising interventions that successfully reduce the vulnerability of women migrants. Rather than only looking at conditions that impact women migrants in sending or destination countries, this paper takes a comprehensive approach, focusing on the entire migration pathway. This includes considering countries of origin and destination, the recruitment and employment process, policy frameworks, and the added challenges of the Covid-19 pandemic including repatriation. We find that while Covid-19 has increased migrant vulnerability, it has also heightened calls for action through increasing exposure of the current system's violations in facilitating trafficking and exacerbating poor working conditions.