Abstract:

Contrary to Andre Gunder Frank’s proposed asymmetric and interdependent core-periphery relationship between nomads and “settled” groups in Central Asia, we see more compelling evidence of a core-periphery dynamic internal to the Mongolian steppe. Beginning as early as the Early Iron Age (c.1000-400 BC) in northern Mongolia, local agriculture appears and diverse grain crops are integrated within steppe diets. The emergence of the Xiongnu state (c.300 BC-200 AD) later saw major intensification of agricultural production in this region that likely served larger purposes of distribution. In the second part of this paper, we present Early Iron Age and Xiongnu Period biomolecular data (stable isotopes, paleoproteomic data, and organic residue analysis) from two peripheral micro-regions located within the Gobi-steppe of southeastern and central Mongolia: Shiriin Chuluu and Baga Gazaryn Chuluu. We show that while a narrow range of grains were part of the diet in the Gobi-steppe by the Early Iron Age, they became ubiquitous and significantly more diverse across the Mongolian steppe under the Xiongnu state. This can be explained by a core-periphery dynamic wherein crops, along with other well attested goods (metal items, beads, silk textiles, timber, etc.), circulated as part of a provisioning system operating between core Xiongnu centers in northern Mongolia and marginal zones represented by sites like Shiriin Chuluu and Baga Gazaryn Chuluu. Taking both papers together, these emerging data complicate Frank’s theoretical foundations regarding steppe political and economic dynamics and should caution researchers against the use of monolithic perceptions to inform globally scaled discussions of prehistory. Ultimately, these results encourage a more nuanced rethinking of the role of steppe populations in world systems.