Paper abstract:

This study examines the Muslim uprisings in late imperial China, particularly during the Tongzhi period (1861­–1875), by analyzing the interactions between Chinese-speaking Muslim leaders from “within the Pass” (kou li) and beyond (kou wai) and correspondence between uprising powers in Ghulja and Urumchi. Using primary sources such as letters from Chinese-speaking Muslim leaders, official records from the Qing regime, and indigenous Turkic accounts of the uprisings, the paper argues that the Khafiyya Sufi group, led by Tuo Delin, played a crucial role in establishing a central hub in the region of Urumchi and Manas for the military struggle of Chinese-speaking Muslims to gain political authority against the Qing regime and Turkic militants in Xinjiang. This study sheds light on the extent to which Muslim uprisings in late imperial China were united, contributing to the fields of Chinese and Islamic studies and emphasizing the significance of language and cultural identity in shaping social and political movements.